Country‐of‐Origin Influences on Product Evaluations: The Impact of Animosity and Perceptions of Industriousness Brutality on Judgments of Typical and Atypical Products

When a product's country of origin has a reputation for manufacturing high‐quality products, there may be a positive impact on product judgments. If people feel animosity toward a country as a result of its political or social policies, they may react negatively to the products it produces. These opposing effects may depend in part on the subset of country‐relevant knowledge that is accessible in memory at the time of judgment. When a product was not one on which Germany or Japan had built its reputation for manufacturing high‐quality products, associating the product with these countries increased its evaluations when industriousness had been activated as part of an unrelated experiment. However, when concepts associated with brutality had been primed, the product's country of origin had a negative effect on judgments. When the product was typical of those manufactured in the country, however, identifying its country of origin increased product evaluations regardless of whether industriousness or brutality had been primed. Thus, animosity toward a product's country of origin had an adverse effect on reactions to it only if the product was not one on which the country's reputation was based.     

The Selection of Freebies and the Preference for Freebie Promotions—A Perspective on Item Characteristics

Research on consumer decision making has mainly focused on individual products; however, many products are purchased with other items as part of a promotional package. This paper explores how the characteristics (hedonic versus utilitarian) of the items in freebie promotional packages (e.g., buy one item and get a different item for free) influence consumers' preference for the promotional package. Additionally, the authors examine how the characteristics of the focal item influence consumers' choice of either a hedonic or a utilitarian freebie item. Five experiments, rooted in the concepts of consumer avoidance of overloading negative emotions and motivation to seek hedonic pleasure, show that a package with one utilitarian and one hedonic item generates higher purchase intentions and willingness to pay than a package with either two hedonic or two utilitarian items. Furthermore, consumers who purchase a hedonic (utilitarian) focal item are more likely to choose a utilitarian (hedonic) freebie. These effects exist not only in hypothetical scenarios but also in an incentive‐compatible design. Moreover, the impact of the focal item characteristics on consumer choice of freebie is moderated by acquisition format and time separation. The authors also explore the internal mechanism influencing consumers' freebie choices. The findings have significant implications for both theory and practice. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Old dogs,new tricks – Rethinking country‐image studies

In international marketing, countries are often conceptualised as image constructs that have an influence on product image formation. Destination image and country of origin image are held to account for bias in consumer perceptions towards products because of the country from which they originate. Studies in these areas are typically underpinned by attitude‐based Likert or semantic differential scale methods, analysed using structural equation models. This paper achieves two key outcomes. Firstly, it adds to the small but growing body of literature that looks at the impact of tourism on post‐tour, export product evaluations. Secondly, it compares this traditional attitude‐based approach to country‐image studies with an alternative associative network theory approach, operationalised with a free‐choice, pick‐any survey method, which is popular within the branding literature. We compare the two methods by applying each to the same set of respondents to establish if the two methods are complementary, and find they produce different outcomes that could have critical implications for how country‐image studies are conceptualised and executed. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Antecedents of consumer relative preference for interpersonal information sources in pre‐purchase search

Past research has demonstrated clearly the importance of pre‐purchase information search within the buying process. Scholars have identified several sources used by consumers in order to obtain information relevant to their purchase situation. Among the various information sources, interpersonal non‐commercial sources seem to play an important role in consumers' choice decisions. The present study examines potential antecedents of consumer relative preference for interpersonal information search. The proposed antecedents include personality traits such as individuals' susceptibility to interpersonal influence, their need for cognition and their self‐confidence, as well as individual differences in product knowledge and perceived risk associated with the purchase of a specific product. Using structural equation modelling on survey data (419 respondents), seven hypotheses — describing relationships between the diverse variables of the model — were tested. The results indicate that consumer relative preference for interpersonal information search was significantly influenced by consumers' susceptibility to interpersonal influence, their need for cognition, their self‐confidence and their product knowledge. Consumers' product knowledge also influenced their perceived risk, which did not affect their preference for interpersonal search significantly. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Consumer ethnocentrism,cultural sensitivity,and intention to purchase local products—evidence from Vietnam

• This study empirically investigates the impacts of consumer ethnocentrism and cultural sensitivity on both imported product judgment and intention to purchase local products in the context of a developing country—Vietnam. Structural equation modeling was used to test these impacts, utilizing a sample of 549 consumers. The results show that consumer ethnocentrism is negatively related to imported product judgment and positively related to intention to purchase local products. In addition, cultural sensitivity has a positive relationship with imported product judgment but not with consumer ethnocentrism. The results also indicate that the impacts of consumer ethnocentrism on imported product judgment and on intention to purchase local products are not different in terms of product categories, gender, income, and education levels. However, differences exist between younger and older consumers.

Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Compensatory knowledge signaling in consumer word‐of‐mouth

This paper extends prior research on consumer knowledge beliefs and word-of-mouth transmission. Findings from four studies suggest that people compensate for unfavorable discrepancies between their actual and ideal consumer knowledge with heightened efforts to signal knowledgeability through the content and volume of their word-of-mouth transmissions. This compensatory knowledge signaling effect is moderated by the self-concept relevance (psychological closeness) of the word-of-mouth target and lay beliefs in the self-enhancement benefits of transmitting product knowledge. Content analysis of participants' product communications further supports our knowledge signaling account. The relationship between actual:ideal knowledge discrepancies and heightened word-of-mouth intentions is mediated by the specific negative emotion associated with actual:ideal self-discrepancies. Overall, the findings suggest that the relationship between consumer knowledge and word-of-mouth transmission depends not only on what you think you know, but also on what you wish you knew.     

Web metrics: measuring patterns in online shopping

The Web has become a primary source of product information for online consumers. As such, basic questions regarding how consumers approach the search process need to be understood and measured if marketers and website developers are to identify patterns or trends in consumer information search strategies. To observe and measure changes in consumer search behaviour, it is necessary to establish benchmarks that can, at a later date, be compared with subsequent observation measurements. This study recorded the search activities of 37 subjects as they searched for information regarding the purchase of two products: one where they had expert product knowledge and one where they had novice product knowledge. Significance was found for particular site types used and, more importantly, in patterns of site type usage. The methodology and benchmarks offer researchers a means of tracking changes in consumer search behaviour on the Web. Copyright © 2003 Henry Stewart Publications.     

It is nice to be important,but it is more important to be nice: Country‐of‐origin's perceived warmth in product failures

Although a large body of research has documented country‐of‐origin effects, very few works have inquired systematic differences in the content of national stereotypes that shape attitudes toward foreign products and their manufacturers. Drawing from the stereotype content model, the authors propose that the often ignored warmth dimension of the origin country is as important as (sometimes more important than) the well‐studied competence dimension in certain situations. As shown in two studies, perceived warmth of the origin country predicts purchase intention in normal situations as well as after product failure. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Intergroup threat,knowledge of the outgroup,and willingness to purchase ingroup and outgroup products: The mediating role of intergroup emotions

Established theories have acknowledged that intergroup threat is one of the key determinants of intergroup attitudes and behaviours, but how intergroup threat can affect consumer behaviour remains unclear. Here, four preregistered studies (total N = 988) examined the effect of intergroup threat (manipulated in terms of realistic and symbolic threats) on consumers’ willingness to purchase ingroup and outgroup products. In the context of China–West relations, we measured Chinese consumers’ willingness to purchase Chinese (ingroup) and Western (outgroup) products. These studies together revealed that realistic and symbolic threats (versus control) increased willingness to purchase ingroup products and decreased willingness to purchase outgroup products, regardless of the product category. Studies 3a and 3b also measured knowledge of the outgroup as a potential moderator, revealing that realistic threat (versus control) reduced willingness to purchase outgroup products only among individuals who had less knowledge of the outgroup. Furthermore, Study 3b showed that the intergroup threat manipulation indirectly influenced consumers’ willingness to purchase ingroup/outgroup products through increased anger and decreased hope. We discussed the contributions to the intergroup relations and consumer behaviour literature and the implications for transnational marketing practices, as well as the limitations of this research.     

The effects of valence‐based and discrete emotional states on aesthetic response

There is increasing recognition that consumer aesthetics—the responses of consumers to the aesthetic or appearance aspects of products—has become an important area of marketing in recent years. Consumer aesthetic responses to a product are a source of pleasure for the consumer. Previous research into the aesthetic responses to products has often emphasized exterior factors and visual design, but studies have seldom considered the psychological aesthetic experience of consumers, and in particular their emotional state. This study attempts to bridge this gap by examining the link between consumers’ emotions and their aesthetic response to a product. Thus, the major goal of this study was to determine how valence‐based and discrete emotional states influence choice. In Studies 1 and 2, positive and negative emotions were manipulated to implement two different induction techniques and explore the effect of emotions on participants’ choices in two separate experiments. The results of both experiments confirmed the predictions, indicating that aesthetic responses and purchase intention are functions of emotional valence, such that both are stronger for people in a positive emotional state than for those in a negative emotional state. Study 2 also used a neutral affective state to establish the robustness of this observed effect of incidental affect. The results of Study 3 demonstrate that aesthetic response and purchase intention are not only a function of affect valence, but also are affected by the certainty appraisal associated with specific affective states. This research, therefore, contributes to the literature by offering empirical evidence that incidental affect is a determinant of aesthetic response.     

Real‐world word learning: Exploring children's developing semantic representations of a science term

Assessments of lexical acquisition are often limited to preschool children on forced‐choice comprehension measures. This study assessed the nature of the understandings 30 school‐age children (mean age = 6;7) acquired about the science term eclipse following a naturalistic exposure to a solar eclipse. The knowledge children acquired about eclipses and a control term comet was assessed at three points in time (baseline‐test, 2‐week post‐test and 5‐month post‐test) using a range of assessment tasks (multiple‐choice comprehension, picture‐naming, drawing and a model solar system manipulation task). Children's knowledge at the baseline‐test and 2‐week post‐test was compared with that of 15 adult controls. The analysis focused on the range of knowledge children acquired about eclipses and the relationships between aspects of knowledge they acquired. We found that children acquired extensive knowledge about eclipses, but not comets. At the 2‐week post‐test, the majority of children were able to produce the term eclipse and provided evidence of accurate comprehension and wider conceptual knowledge about solar eclipses, which was retained at the 5‐month post‐test. Further, children's ability to produce the term was related to their acquisition of ‘rich’ semantic and conceptual knowledge.     

Facets of country image and brand equity: Revisiting the role of product categories in country‐of‐origin effect research

The country‐of‐origin effect is a topic central to the field of international marketing. Country of origin has been found to exert a particularly potent effect on consumer evaluation in situations where there is a strong link between a country and a particular product category. The present study provides further insight into how this particular effect can be understood. Drawing on a novel conceptualization of how country image and product categories interact, this study tested the relative evaluative relevance of product category with respect to estimates of brand equity across a variety of product categories. The findings suggest that facets of a country's image that are more closely related to the evaluation situation exert a greater influence on the evaluation of brands. This result encourages scholars as well as practitioners to re‐evaluate which situations might cause the country of origin effect to hold managerial relevance and paves the way for new paths toward a more comprehensive understanding of the effect. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Consumer affects when making undesirable purchases to meet the minimum purchase requirement: Decision‐related variables as moderators

One common type of sales promotion involves a minimum purchase requirement (MinPR), where customers must purchase at least a minimum number of products to enjoy a discount. In the process of making purchases to qualify for the discount, consumers may find their first‐choice product options or have to settle for products that they did not originally prefer. Three between‐subjects experiments examines whether, in various decision situations, counterfactual thinking (CFT) might bias individuals' emotions in response to desirable versus undesirable purchases. Study 1 demonstrates that participants who made undesirable purchases to meet the MinPR felt less satisfied with the purchase outcome precipitated by upward CFT, whereas downward CFT led to feelings of pleasure in participants who could find their first‐choice product options. Studies 2 and 3 find that counterfactual emotions of undesirable purchases were more pronounced when participants experienced a difficult decision process because of a narrow promotion scope or when time pressure, manipulated in terms of explicit deadlines, is heavy rather than light, respectively. On the contrary, participants' responses to desirable purchases did not vary as a function of decision difficulty or time pressure.     

Indulgence as self‐reward for prior shopping restraint: A justification‐based mechanism

This research investigates the effects of refraining from a purchase temptation at one point in time on choices made at a subsequent opportunity to purchase or consume a tempting product. Four experiments involving scenarios and real decisions demonstrate that the salience of restraint at a prior impulse buying opportunity causes consumers to reward themselves subsequently by choosing indulgence over non-indulgence. We show that indulgence is likely to increase only when prior restraint is salient and hence can be used as a justification. As expected, an index of reasons for vs. against buying mediates the relationship between prior impulse purchase decision and indulgent choice. In further support of the mechanism, we find that prior indulgence can have the same effect as prior restraint, if the prior indulgence is made justifiable. Finally, we show that prior shopping restraint can increase indulgence without a corresponding increase in self-esteem. These findings extend our understanding of self-regulation and demonstrate that everyday consumer decisions such as responses to impulse buying opportunities can have consequential downstream effects.     

The impact of fragrance on consumer choice

The following research focuses on fragrance (sense of smell) as a primary driver in consumer choice. The fragrance industry is also discussed, along with the impact of atmospherics and the surrounding environment on the consumer. A case study on bar soaps shows how changes to the product fragrance or packaging can affect the purchase decision. The learning and recommendations apply directly to the formation of marketing strategy and are particularly important to categories such as body cleaning and other categories where fragrance is a primary driver in consumer choice, as well as (to a lesser extent) any products that are (or might be potentially) fragranced. The findings affect the ultimate product packaging, colour, appearance and fragrance. Copyright © 2003 Henry Stewart Publications.     

诱导效应的影响机制——产品感知风险的调节作用

为了探究以往消费者受情境诱导的影响程度不同的原因,本研究从产品感知风险的角度阐述诱导效应的作用机制。用2×2的因子设计,检验产品感知风险和诱导情形对目标产品选择概率的交互作用。188名被试的实验结果显示高感知风险产品类型下诱导效应显著,而低感知风险产品类型下诱导效应不显著。进一步分析得出目标产品相对吸引力是诱导情形与目标产品选择概率的关系链中的中介变量,而产品的感知风险是有中介的调节变量的研究结论。     

Brand names on packaging and their impact on purchase preference

This study examines whether appearance of corporate, product and dual brand names (or a combination of brand names used together) on packaging influence consumer purchase preference. The face‐to‐face survey consists of consumers rating their purchase preference on a 7‐point scale sixteen random brand names, and combinations of brand names on packaging along with three different prices, each for two product categories: chocolate and cereals – a total of 4032 observations are examined. Hypotheses are tested using multiple linear regression models. The findings show corporate, product and dual brand names have little impact on purchase preference per se, instead brand category dominance influence consumer choice, and corporate names do not add value as previously thought. The study suggests trends and contexts in which, a corporate name and a product brand name may be extended to optimise consumer brand associations and influence purchase, as well as strategies for extending in remote product categories. Future research needs focusing on international consumers' response on brand linkages in the international arena, and the issues of brand building and brand equity maintenance in international markets. The study makes contribution to brand extension, brand portfolio management and strategic brand management research. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

移动支付对大学生冲动性消费行为的影响——来自ERP的实验证据

为寻找移动支付影响冲动性消费的电生理证据,实验采用两难选择的虚拟购物任务,通过2(支付方式)×2(产品类型)被试内实验设计,结合ERP技术比较移动支付和现金支付下的冲动消费及相关电生理指标。实验数据显示:(1)移动支付下参与者的购买意愿高于现金条件;(2)对享乐品的购买,移动支付下的购买意愿、购买率高于现金支付,而对实用品两种支付下无差异;(3)决策阶段头皮左侧发现,移动支付下享乐品的LPP波幅正于实用品,而现金支付下二者LPP波幅无差异;(4)N2波幅上存在Buy/No Buy效应。结果表明:移动支付促进了享乐品的冲动性消费,决策阶段左侧脑区的LPP波幅可作为其电生理指标,N2波幅表征买与不买。     

产品类别与网上购物决策过程的关系

产品的分类方法有很多,在网络购物环境中,应用较广的是将产品分为搜索产品、体验产品和信任产品;在传统购物环境中,应用较广的是将产品分为日用品、选购品和特殊产品。文献的研究结果表明,消费者在网上购买不同类别的产品时,网上购物决策过程中的信息搜索、网上购物意愿和偏好等行为存在着许多不同之处,文章对此进行了详细的介绍,并对今后的研究方向提出了建议