Double Forced Compliance and Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Abstract

Festinger and Carlsmith's (1959) experiment has been reexamined by means of the paradigm of double forced compliance. In this paradigm, the dissonance reduction process was observed after the performance of two behaviors instead of only one as in the classical paradigms of this theory. In this experiment, French students first performed a boring task (button-turning) and then described it negatively to their peers. Because these two behaviors were related to dissonance, the total dissonance was expected to be higher among those who performed both behaviors than among those who performed only the first. The hypothesis was confirmed. The participants who described the task negatively after performing it rated it more positively than those who only performed it.     

“The threat is in the head,not in the legs”: Activating negative age stereotypes generates extra cognitive load during walking

ObjectiveActivating negative age stereotypes has been consistently shown to impair cognitive performance in older adults, but not motor performance, especially on mobility tasks. We tested the hypothesis that older adults may still experience stereotype threat, even if mobility performance is not affected. To do so, we examined whether inducing negative stereotypes may increase cognitive load during a walking task.MethodThis question was investigated in a dual-task paradigm: older adults performed simultaneously a walking task and a Stroop task, in stereotype and control conditions.ResultsResults showed that the stereotype induction did not affect walking parameters but decreased performance on the Stroop task, indicating that this induction increased cognitive load during walking.DiscussionThese results suggest that negative age stereotypes may be damaging even if walking parameters are not affected, by altering older adults' attention to their walking environment. We conclude by highlighting theoretical and practical implications.     

The Effects of Attentional Focus Instructions and Task Difficulty in a Paced Fine Motor Skill

Abstract

An external focus of attention is considered superior to an internal focus for learning and performance. However, findings specific to changing the task difficulty are inconsistent. The present study used a reciprocal aiming task to determine the effects of attentional focus on motor performance using speed-accuracy paradigm. We constrained timing to examine how internal and external focus of attention influenced accuracy when task difficulty changes. The results indicated greater accuracy on the right target and greater consistency on both targets for the external focus condition, regardless of task difficulty. Our results uniquely demonstrated how instruction modified a speed-accuracy task.     

Are there attentional demands associated with haptic modalities while walking in young,healthy adults?

Study designA prospective, observational study.ObjectivesTo assess the attentional demands of using haptic modalities during walking using a multi-task paradigm in young, healthy adults.SettingBiomechanics of Balance and Movement (BBAM) Lab, University of Saskatchewan.MethodsTwenty-two (12 male) young, healthy adults performed walking trials with and without a verbal reaction time (VRT) task, as well as with and without the use of haptic anchors and light touch on a railing. Walking performance was evaluated using normalized stride velocity and step width, and dynamic stability was evaluated using step width variability and medial-lateral margin of stability (ML MOS) and its variability.ResultsThere were no significant differences in VRT when walking with and without added haptic input and no interactions between the added VRT task and added haptic input. Step width increased and variability of the ML MOS increased during trials with the VRT task compared to trials without the VRT task. The ML MOS decreased when using both haptic tools with a greater decrease when using light touch on the railing compared to when using the haptic anchors. Normalized stride velocity and step width decreased when using light touch on the railing only.ConclusionBoth haptic tools affected stability during walking. Using the railing to add haptic input had a greater effect on walking stability and was the only haptic tool to affect walking performance. Attentional demands should be considered in future research and applications of adding haptic input during walking.     

The influence of training task stimuli on transfer effects of working memory training in aging

IntroductionWorking memory (WM) training is known to produce benefits in older adults’ WM. Transfer effects to untrained abilities, however, remain controversial and several aspects are thought to influence the generalization of benefits, including the kind of stimuli used in the training tasks, an aspect rarely addressed in older adults.ObjectiveThe present study had two aims: (1) to test the efficacy of a visuospatial WM training procedure in older adults, in terms of specific and transfer effects; (2) to examine in two experiments whether the type of stimuli used in the training task influences the training's effectiveness. Experiment 1 adopted images with a neutral valence while experiment 2 used emotionally positive images based on evidence that older adults tend to remember positive stimuli better. In both experiments, specific training-related gains in a visuospatial WM task (the criterion task) and transfer effects on measures of verbal WM, visuospatial short-term memory, processing speed and reasoning were examined. Maintenance of training benefits was also assessed at an 8-month follow-up.MethodSeventy older adult (63–75 years old) volunteers (35 for experiment 1, and 35 for experiment 2) were randomly assigned to a training or active control group. The same visuospatial WM training procedure was used in both experiments, manipulating only the type of stimuli used (neutral in experiment 1 and emotionally positive in experiment 2).ResultsIn both experiments, only trained participants showed specific benefits in the WM criterion task. These gains were also maintained at the follow-up, but no transfer effects were identified.ConclusionOverall, our findings using the present visuospatial WM training paradigm suggest that it is less effective, in terms of transfer effects, than the same paradigm administered verbally in a previous study, regardless of the type of stimuli used in WM training tasks (neutral or emotionally positive stimuli).     

Delayed N2 response in Go condition in a visual Go/Nogo ERP study in children who stutter

Purpose of the studyThe main aim of the study was to investigate the attentional and inhibitory abilities and their underlying processes of children who stutter by using behavioural measurement and event-related potentials (ERP) in a visual Go/Nogo paradigm.MethodsParticipants were 11 children who stutter (CWS; mean age 8.1, age range 6.3–9.5 years) and 19 typically developed children (TDC; mean age 8.1, age range 5.8–9.6 years). They performed a visual Go/Nogo task with simultaneous EEG recording to obtain ERP responses.ResultsResults showed that CWS had longer N2 and P3 latencies in the Go condition compared to the TDC. In contrast, the groups did not differ significantly in the Nogo condition or behavioural measures.ConclusionsOur findings did not confirm less efficient inhibitory control in CWS but suggest atypical attentional processing such as stimulus evaluation and response selection.Educational Objectives: The reader will be able to (a) describe recent findings on attention and inhibitory control in children who stutter, (b) describe the measurement of attentional processing, including inhibitory control, and (c) describe the findings on attentional processing in children who stutter as indexed by the event-related potentials in a visual Go/Nogo paradigm.     

Is ego depletion associated with increased distractibility? Results from a basketball free throw task

ObjectivesIt has been repeatedly demonstrated that athletes in a state of ego depletion do not perform up to their capabilities in high pressure situations. We assume that momentarily available self-control strength determines whether individuals in high pressure situations can resist distracting stimuli.Design/methodIn the present study, we applied a between-subjects design, as 31 experienced basketball players were randomly assigned to a depletion group or a non-depletion group. Participants performed 30 free throws while listening to statements representing worrisome thoughts (as frequently experienced in high pressure situations) over stereo headphones. Participants were instructed to block out these distracting audio messages and focus on the free throws. We postulated that depleted participants would be more likely to be distracted. They were also assumed to perform worse in the free throw task.ResultsThe results supported our assumption as depleted participants paid more attention to the distracting stimuli. In addition, they displayed worse performance in the free throw task.ConclusionsThese results indicate that sufficient levels of self-control strength can serve as a buffer against distracting stimuli under pressure.     

Exploring a new paradigm for empathy research / Explorando un nuevo paradigma para el estudio de la empatía

Abstract

The present paper proposes an alternative experimental procedure for studies on empathy. It is intended as a simple and reliable alternative to the commonly used designs, which are certainly very elegant, but costly, as they require delicate real-life experimental manipulations. We advocate that studies using simple well-formulated text stimuli can be methodologically as reliable and valid as game task approaches. To underscore our claim, we report first behavioural evidence that supports this conclusion. The clear advantage of the method we present is that it is less susceptible to bias and, more importantly, more accessible to laboratories that do not have the financial means and the spatial infrastructure to manoeuvre complex and costly experimental setups and techniques. It is an easy to use, computer-based paradigm.     

Lexical orthographic knowledge acquisition in adults: The whole-word visual processing impact

IntroductionOne of the most persistent difficulties in French written language acquisition is lexical orthographic memorization. Both theoretical models and behavioral studies have suggested that simultaneous visual processing of all the letters of a word could be important for the acquisition of its orthographic form.Main goalTwo experiments are conducted to test this whole-word visual processing hypothesis.MethodThe paradigm used in both experiments is a self-teaching paradigm in which adult participants had to read orthographically complex bisyllabic pseudowords in isolation. In one reading condition, all the letters of the item are available at once, in the other the first and second syllables are seen successively. After reading, participants had to spell under dictation and to recognize the written items.ResultsGlobally, the results showed that participants better recall the orthographic form of a word after having read it in the whole-word reading condition. The result of the recognition task, in the second experiment, was in line with the result of the spelling under dictation task.ConclusionThese results, although they should be interpreted with caution, are in line with the whole-word visual processing hypothesis. Applied consequences for orthographic learning and teaching, as for remediation of specific orthographic disabilities, are discussed.     

The role of awareness in anticipation and recall performance in the Hebb repetition paradigm: implications for sequence learning

Sequence learning has notably been studied using the Hebb repetition paradigm (Hebb, 1961) and the serial reaction time (SRT) task (Nissen & Bullemer, Cognitive Psychology 19:1–32, 1987). These two paradigms produce robust learning effects but differ with regard to the role of awareness: Awareness does not affect learning a repeated sequence in the Hebb repetition paradigm, as is evidenced by recall performance, whereas in the SRT task, awareness helps to anticipate the location of the next stimulus. In this study, we examined the role of awareness in anticipation and recall performance, using the Hebb repetition paradigm. Eye movements were monitored during a spatial reconstruction task where participants had to memorize sequences of dot locations. One sequence was repeated every four trials. Results showed that recall performance for the repeated sequence improved across repetitions for all participants but that anticipation increased only for participants aware of the repetition.     

Cognitive psychology in sport: Progress and prospects

ProblemThere has been a recent upsurge of research interest in cognitive sport psychology or the scientific study of mental processes (e.g., mental imagery) in athletes. Despite this interest, an important question has been neglected. Specifically, is research on cognitive processes in athletes influential outside sport psychology, in the “parent” field of cognitive psychology or in the newer discipline of cognitive neuroscience?ObjectivesThe purpose of this paper is to explore the theoretical significance of research on expertise, attention and mental imagery in athletes from the perspective of cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience.MethodFollowing analysis of recent paradigm shifts in cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience, a narrative review is provided of key studies on expertise, attention and mental imagery in athletes.Results and conclusionsThis paper shows that cognitive sport psychology has contributed significantly to theoretical understanding of certain mental processes studied in cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience. It also shows that neuroscientific research on motor imagery can benefit from increased collaboration with cognitive sport psychology. Overall, I conclude that the domain of sport offers cognitive researchers a rich and dynamic natural laboratory in which to study how the mind works.     

Evidence for the effectiveness of holistic process goals for learning and performance under pressure

ObjectivesResearch has suggested that holistic process goals might help avoid the effects associated with conscious processing of task relevant information by skilled but anxious athletes. This experiment compared the efficacy of holistic and part process goal strategies for novices using a learning paradigm.DesignLaboratory-based experimental design incorporating practice, retention and transfer phases.MethodTwenty-four males were randomly assigned to a part process goal, holistic process goal or control condition and performed a simulated race-driving task in practice, retention and transfer tests.ResultsAnalyses of variance revealed that performance during practice was similar in all conditions but that the holistic process goal group outperformed the part process goal group at both retention and transfer.ConclusionsCompared to part process goals, holistic process goals result in more effective motor learning and performance that appears to be more robust under pressure.     

Measurement,Classification, and Prediction of Paradigm Adherence of Marriage and Family Therapists

This study assessed the theoretical perspectives of marriage and family practitioners using the Paradigm Adherence Scale (PAS), which measures practitioner adherence to the psychological, systems, and social constructionist paradigms associated with marriage and family therapy. Results from a survey of clinical members of AAMFT ( N = 204) indicated that a majority of therapists were primarily adhering to the systems paradigm (43.6%) or practicing from a combination of paradigms (42.2%), while the social constructionism approach was used by a smaller but significant percentage of therapists (13.7%). Factors predicting membership in paradigm adherence groups included the current or most recent supervisor's preferred paradigm (most predictive), therapist gender, and years of clinical experience. While only 16.5% of the variance in paradigm adherence was accounted for by the set of predictor variables, this was viewed as having some practical significance in the difficult task of explaining choice and utilization of theoretical framework.     

The contribution of early auditory and visual information to the discrimination of shot power in ball sports

ObjectiveIt is well-established that early visual information has an important role in human ability to play ball sports, as its correct interpretation promotes accurate predictions concerning the ball motion. Other research highlights that auditory information provides relevant cues in various sport situations. The present study combines these two lines of research with the aim to investigate the contribution of early auditory and visual information to the discrimination of shot power in sport-specific situations.DesignTwo experiments were run, one concerning soccer penalty kicks and the other concerning volleyball smashes. In both experiments there were three conditions: Audio, Audiovideo, and Video; a within subjects design was used, with the three conditions carried out in three different days and in a counterbalanced order among participants.MethodParticipants’ task was to discriminate the power of two penalties/smashes presented in rapid sequence, on the basis of a two-alternative forced choice paradigm.ResultsThe results revealed that, for both penalties and smashes, response accuracy was above chance level in all the three conditions; moreover, while for the penalties no difference among the conditions was observed, for the smashes participants were more accurate in the Audio and Audiovideo conditions compared to the Video condition. As concerns the response times, for both penalties and smashes participants were faster in the Audio and Audiovideo conditions compared to the Video condition.ConclusionsTaken together, the results suggest that the discrimination of shot power was more easily performed on the basis of early auditory information than on the basis of the respective visual information.     

Japanese manufacturing techniques

Abstract

Japanese human resource management, particularly as manifested in Japanese manufacturing companies, has undoubtedly been seen as highly successful. This paper analyses how and why it has developed into such a commanding position. It looks at the cultural contexts of new means of production and analyses factors contributing to its success using examples and case studies drawn particularly from Japanese motor manufacturing. Japanese human resource management policies and techniques as well as production techniques have been emulated by many non-Japanese manufacturers, although there is great selectivity in the adaptation of techniques. It is also difficult for researchers to attribute direct causal influence.

Nevertheless, the influence continues and this paper goes on to examine the impact upon workers and the design of work these techniques are having. Empirical evidence is examined.

The paper ends with a plea for work and organizational psychology to complement its traditional natural science paradigm and neo-positivist approach with a multiperspective, ethnographic, and qualitative methodology.     

The effects of pain and a secondary task on postural sway during standing

BackgroundPain impairs available cognitive resources and somatosensory information, but its effects on postural control during standing are inconclusive. The aim of this study was to investigate whether postural sway is affected by the presence of pain and a secondary task during standing.MethodsSixteen healthy subjects stood as quiet as possible at a tandem stance for 30s on a force platform at different conditions regarding the presence of pain and a secondary task. Subjects received painful stimulations on the right upper arm or lower leg according to a relative pain threshold [pain 7 out 10 on a Visual Analog Scale (VAS) - 0 representing “no pain” and 10 “worst pain imaginable”] using a computer pressurized cuff. The secondary task consisted of pointing to a target using a head-mounted laser-pointer as visual feedback. Center of Pressure (COP) sway area, velocity, mean frequency and sample entropy were calculated from force platform measures.FindingsCompared to no painful condition, pain intensity (leg: VAS = 7; arm VAS = 7.4) increased following cuff pressure conditions (P < .01). Pain at the leg decreased COP area (P < .05), increased COP velocity (P < .05), mean frequency (P < .05) and sample entropy (P < .05) compared with baseline condition regardless the completion of the secondary task. During condition with pain at the leg, completion of the secondary task reduced COP velocity (P < .001) compared with condition without secondary task.InterpretationPain in the arm did not affect postural sway. Rather, postural adaptations seem dependent on the location of pain as pain in the lower leg affected postural sway. The completion of a secondary task affected postural sway measurements and reduced the effect of leg pain on postural sway. Future treatment interventions could benefit from dual-task paradigm during balance training aiming to improve postural control in patients suffering from chronic pain.     

Self-awareness and emotional intensity

Abstract

Influences of mood on qualitative aspects of cognitive processing are examined within a semantic priming paradigm. The priming effect reflects the reduction of latency for a lexical decision task when a target word is presented in combination with an associatively related prime word. The effect was higher for subjects in whom positive affect had been induced than for a control group, if prime and target were high-associatively related. There was no effect of mood on priming for low-associatively related prime-target pairs. The results are interpreted in terms of a general facilitating influence of mood on spreading activation independent of the affective quality of the processed material.     

Learning by explaining: Impacts of explanations on the development of a competence

IntroductionPrevious research has mainly studied the impact of activity explanation on performances (e.g., Chi, 2009), but little research has been done to examine its impact on the development of a competence.ObjectiveA model of dynamic analysis of competence (Coulet, 2011) has been used to measure the impact of activity explanation on the development of a technical competence.MethodExplanation of tasks of varying complexity has been manipulated in two experimental studies; effects of activity explanation have been measured on objective performance, perceptions related to the task and final explanations.ResultsParticipants who explained their activity not only performed better on the tasks, but also showed more positive perceptions of their relations to the task and a better ability to produce didactic explanations.ConclusionPsychological processes involved in explaining activity and their implications are examined and discussed.     

Cortisol and behavioral reaction of low and high sensation seekers differ in responding to a sport-specific stressor

Background/objectives: Sensation seeking is closely related to practicing high-risk sports. This domain offers individuals an opportunity to achieve an increased level of arousal. Moreover, stress reactivity implies interindividual differences in the capacity to respond to a stressor. The purpose of this study was to examine whether high sensation seekers (HSS) compared to low sensation seekers (LSS) experience lower levels of stress on a physiological and psychological basis. Stress was induced in a sport-specific experimental paradigm with a climbing task through a jump into the rope.

Methods: Two extreme groups (n?=?28 male athletes) were examined in a mixed-factorial design (between: HSS vs. LSS; within: repeated measurements of several variables related to stress reactivity - cortisol, heart rate, anxiety).

Results: In response to the stressor HSS compared to LSS released a significantly lower amount of cortisol and needed less time for the climbing task. Heart rate and anxiety were not significant.

Conclusions: Individuals seem to react physiologically differently to a sport-specific stressor, depending on their level of sensation seeking. HSS seem to be less strained, and seem to perform better. These findings might be relevant not only for the evaluation of (sport-) psychological interventions but also for other contexts (e.g., special forces).     

Besoin de cognition,besoin d’évaluer,besoin de clôture : proposition d’échelles en langue française et approche socio-normative des besoins dits fondamentaux

Introduction and objectivesAfter leading a validation of questionnaires about three fundamental needs in French language (need for cognition, closing and evaluation), we tested in two studies that fundamental needs could be subjected to social constraints and could be considered differently than exclusively like stable personality characteristics and motivational drivers of action.MethodUsing the paradigm of judges (study 1) and the paradigm of identification (study 2), the results argue for a normative approach, at least as regards the need for cognition and assess.ResultsThe results of the first study show that individuals consider more favorably targets with strong need rather than low need and especially in social contexts with high social utility (that is to say, the professional context in comparison with the friendly context). The results of the second study show that when the questionnaires about needs “as would a person having been previously well or poorly assessed” participants get higher scores high on the need for cognition questionnaire in the first case than in the second. The results regarding the need for closure are more mixed.ConclusionThe results are discussed in a socio-normative perspective.