The role of plausibility in influencing environmental attributions

The aim of the study was to examine how plausibility influences attributions about the cause of perceived arousal. Subjects watched one of three arousing (humorous, sexual, aggressive) or a nonarousing televised program under conditions of appropriate or inappropriate interpersonal spacing. The subjects then completed a questionnaire indicating how crowded they felt and rating the movie on a number of dimensions. The results indicated that under close interpersonal distances, subjects felt less crowded while watching the arousing movies than while viewing the nonarousing movie. There were no differences in the experience of crowding between the movie conditions under the far interpersonal distance conditions. In addition, subjects rated the arousing movies as more arousing under close as opposed to far interpersonal distance conditions. Further, the humorous movie was viewed as more funny, and the violent movie was rated more violent under the close as opposed to the far conditions. Finally, there was a tendency to enjoy the arousing movies more under the close conditions, while the reverse effect was found for the nonarousing movie. It was argued that the arousing movies reduced the experience of crowding under close interpersonal conditions because subjects attributed their arousal to the movies rather than to the spatial restrictions. It was further suggested that the results showed that individuals will attribute their arousal to salient stimuli in their environment that could plausibly be sources of arousal. The results not only offer support for an attribution model of crowding, but they also show that depending on the individual's attribution, spatial conditions that can give rise to crowding may increase enjoyment of events in the environment.     

Misattribution, preparatory information, and speech anxiety

In two experiments with undergraduate subjects, I compared the effects of misattribution versus information manipulations on speech anxiety. In Experiment 1, some subjects were allegedly exposed to subliminal noise while reading a speech in front of a camera. These subjects were told that subliminal noise makes people feel either unpleasantly aroused or pleasantly relaxed or that it has no effect. Subjects in a fourth condition were given accurate information about how they would feel (unpleasantly aroused) but were not exposed to the subliminal noise misattribution source. In Experiment 2, I replicated the arousing noise and accurate information conditions from the first study and added two new groups incorporating a delay that should preclude misattribution. In both experiments, the alleged presence of arousing subliminal noise reduced subjects' speech dysfluencies during the speech task, whereas the presentation of accurate information alone did not have a comparable ameliorative effect. Thus, both experiments supported the misattribution interpretation of why neutral labels for arousal can reduce emotionality.     

Effects of Acute Experimental Crowding1

Recent concern with population growth has begun to stimulate interest in the effect of crowding on humans. This report presents a model of crowding based on the concept of normative expectations concerning appropriate interaction distances. A study of acute experimental crowding was then conducted. Contrary to findings of prior research, the present study found that crowding produced arousal. Subsequent social behavior, however, was mediated by different sex-specific group processes. In general, crowded male groups displayed a competitive, fragmented orientation, whereas crowded women formed cohesive, cooperative groups. Contrary to preliminary expectations, subjects were differentially effected by crowding based on their seating position in the crowded room.     

Personal space and density as factors in task performance and feeling of crowding.

The study was an investigation of the effects of density and personal space on simple and complex task performance and on feelings of crowding on 60 female Hindu students in India. A 2 x 2 design was used. Density was manipulated by varying the number of subjects in a fixed room space (social density), and the stop-distance technique was used to measure personal space. Results revealed that complex task performance was adversely affected by a high-density condition and by the personal space of the subjects, leading to a significant interaction effect of the two variables, but no significant main or interaction effect was found for the simple task performance. The subjects with "far" personal space under the high-density condition evaluated the environment of the experimental room as most crowded, more than any other subject did.     

Physiological,Cognitive, and Nonverbal Responses to Repeated Exposure to Crowding1

The present study testcd the hypotheses that crowded subjects would evidence higher levels of arousal than uncrowded subjects and that the arousal of crowded subjects would not habituate with the passage of time. In a laboratory setting, subjects were exposed three tinies over a 3-week period to either crowding with physical contact or an uncrowded environment. A high degree of convergence in support of the experimental hypotheses was provided by behavioral, physiological, and self-report measures. Crowded subjects were more physiologically aroused; rated by confederates to be more tense, uncomfortable, and annoyed; and reported more negative affect than uncrowded subjects. No evidence for habituation of. response to crowding was found.     

Waiting for a crowd: the behavioral and perceptual effects of anticipated crowding.

An experiment was conducted in which subjects were convinced that crowding was imminent. It was hypothesized that the arousal of expectations of crowding would cause subjects to behave in ways suggesting that they were preparing for the experience of crowding by taking steps to reduce the impact of crowding before its onset. Similarly, it was predicted that anticipation of crowding would influence subject perceptions of the experimental room, interpersonal affect, and general levels of discomfort. Data collected indicated that these predictions were accurate; subjects anticipating crowding chose more socially isolated seat positions, avoided contact with others, experienced crowding and discomfort, and rated others in the setting as well as the room in ways generally consistent with definitions of crowding.     

Disruptive effects of disconfirmed expectancies about crowding.

The experiment utilized a 2 (high vs. low room density) X 2 (forewarning of a crowded room vs. no forewarning) X 2 (simple vs. complex task) design to examine the effects of anticipation of crowding on task performance. More tasks were attempted and efficiency was higher when expectancies about the crowd were confirmed. Subjects not told to anticipate a crowd who actually worked under high density and subjects warned about a crowd that did not materialize performed most poorly. These differences were largest for the complex task. Baum and Greenberg's results were replicated with the performance data. Perceptions of the experimental room also differed as a function of anticipation, but failure to obtain a Crowding X Anticipation interaction did not support their hypothesis that anticipating a crowd induces identical perceptions to those obtained under actual crowding. The results are discussed in terms of disconfirmed expectancies being disruptive of performance, particularly complex task performance.     

The influence of perceived prison crowding on male inmates' perception of aggressive events

This study examines whether, in a male prison, the subjective experience of crowding increases the likelihood that events are perceived as aggressive in nature, and whether the protagonists involved are viewed as more hostile, malevolent, and aggressive. In addition, this paper also examines the possible mediating effects of stress, arousal, and psychological well‐being on two hypothesised relationships. First, these mediating factors are examined for the link between individuals' personal space preferences and their perceived level of crowding. Second, these factors are examined for the link between perceived crowding and interpretations of an aggressive event. Such associations may help to explain why crowding and aggression are linked within a social interactionist perspective. The results confirmed previous findings that crowding is linked to increases in arousal and stress, and a reduction in psychological well‐being. This study also found, however, that those inmates who experienced crowding were also more likely to interpret behaviour as aggressive and violent. This relationship was not mediated by arousal, stress, or psychological well‐being. However, these factors were found to partially operate in the relationship between personal space preferences and the experience of subjective crowding. The implications of this study for social interactionist explanations of the link between crowding and prison violence are offered. Aggr. Behav. 30:273–283, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Effects of Handwriting and Examiner's Expertise on Assessment of Essays

Abstract

The study was an investigation of the effects of density and personal space on simple and complex task performance and on feelings of crowding on 60 female Hindu students in India. A 2 × 2 design was used. Density was manipulated by varying the number of subjects in a fixed room space (social density), and the stop-distance technique was used to measure personal space. Results revealed that complex task performance was adversely affected by a high-density condition and by the personal space of the subjects, leading to a significant interaction effect of the two variables, but no significant main or interaction effect was found for the simple task performance. The subjects with “far” personal space under the high-density condition evaluated the environment of the experimental room as most crowded, more than any other subject did.     

Compensatory Response to Anticipated Densities1

The coping processes associated with crowding stress were conceptualized as dynamic sequences of personal or situational adjustments and readjustments directed toward maintaining desired frequencies of social contact. By studying ongoing coping processes as subjects prepared for anticipated crowding, evidence of social withdrawal as a response to crowding was obtained. In addition, findings suggested that these processes were sensitive to change in the situation, seeking or avoiding interaction as anticipated group size changed. Subjects who were subsequently told that they would be interacting in small groups rather than in larger groups reported less crowding and discomfort than subjects whose anticipation of large group interaction was maintained. Furthermore, subjects whose expectations of large group interaction were disconfirmed increased facial regard for others following disconfirmation, indicating a greater willingness to interact. These findings were discussed as evidence of optimization processes governing desired levels of social contact, intimacy, and personal space.     

A study of the comparative structure of guilt and shame in a Chinese society.

On the basis of previous theoretical and empirical analyses of the comparative structures of guilt and shame, the authors hypothesized that antecedent condition (personal inadequacy vs. moral norm violation), audience presence, and personal responsibility attribution would distinguish shame from guilt. Although the subject population was Hong Kong Chinese, evidence from previous studies suggests that the comparative structures of guilt and shame are quite similar across cultures. The subjects were asked to recall either a guilt or a shame incident, and their responses were then coded into the predictor variables. The results of the study indicated that guilt was most likely to emerge when individuals had violated a moral norm and held themselves responsible for their conduct. In contrast, shame emerged more frequently when subjects felt personally inadequate than when they had violated moral norms. Moreover, when a guilt incident was reported, and audience was rarely mentioned, whereas subjects who reported a shame incident would generally feel personally responsible and often mentioned being looked at or evaluated. However, neither personal responsibility nor the presence of an audience seemed to be essential for a person to experience shame.     

Effects of Bodily Contact on Reactions to Crowding1

The present study examined the effects of bodily contact in a crowded environment. Initially, the skin conductance levels (SCL) of 160 males and females were obtained during rest and while bursting a balloon. In a subsequent session, subjects in same-sex groups of four were seated for 30 minutes in either (a) a large room, (b) a small room subjected to unavoidable bodily contact, or (c) a small room which was partitioned to either reduce or prevent bodily contact while allowing visual access. Measures of mood, tolerance for frustration, cognitive task performance, and self reports of annoyance and somatic distress were then taken. Results showed that crowding is stressful and that bodily contact makes a significant contribution to the amount of stress experienced for both men and women. In general, crowded subjects forced to touch showed the greatest increases in SCL, felt most annoyed, were most bothered by spatial intrusion during crowding, and had the lowest tolerance for frustration following crowding. Sex differences in mood following crowding and in reaction to the noncrowded environment were observed and appeared to be mediated by differential social concerns.     

Behavioral and Physiological Consequences of Crowding in Humans1

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of crowding on human performance. Results generally supported the hypothesis that crowding acts as a stressor which may be mediated by overarousal. Moderate decrements in complex but not simple task performance were found for crowded subjects as compared to uncrowded controls. Poorer performance on a group cooperation task and less tolerance for frustration as an aftereffect of the crowded experience were reported. Crowded subjects in comparison to controls also exhibited significant elevations in blood pressure and pulse rate and manifested additional behavioral indices of stress, which included greater behavioral stereotypes, increased defensive postures, more remarks toward the door of the experimental room, and self reports of greater discomfort and hostility.     

The effects of censorship and attractiveness of the censor on attitude change

The effects of censoring a communication, overriding the censor, and the attractiveness of the censor on the potential audience's attitude and desire to hear the communication were studied. Subjects were told that a speech which they were to have heard had been censored by a positively, negatively, or neutrally evaluated group. Some subjects were told that the experimenter had decided to override the censor and that they would hear the communication. Other subjects were told they would not hear the censored communication. The results indicated that censorship, regardless of the attractiveness of the censor, caused the potential audience to change their attitudes toward the position to be advocated by the communication and to increase their desire to hear that communication. These effects were interpreted as resulting from the arousal of psychological reactance. When the censor was overriden and the audience felt that they would hear the communication, their desire to hear it decreased. Further, subjects who had been told that a positively evaluated group had censored the speech changed their attitudes away from the position to be advocated by the communication while subjects who believed that a negative group had censored the speech changed their attitudes toward the position of the communication. These results were interpreted as evidence of cognitive balancing.     

Misattribution of arousal and the effects of self-threatening information

Two experiments are reported on the effects of misattributing arousal. In both experiments, subjects took an intelligence test and received fictitious negative results about their performance. In the first experiment, subjects before receiving feedback were given a pill labeled as arousing; however, the ostensible effectiveness of the pill was varied. The greater the alleged strength of the pill, the less the test was derogated following feedback about performance on it and the more effort subjects reported expending on the test. In the second experiment, subjects were told that the pill was either arousing or relaxing and that its effect lasted for either a short or a long period of time. Initial test evaluations were more positive and estimates of effort expended were greater when the pill was described as arousing than when it was described as relaxing. However, whereas these differences were maintained over time when the pill's effects were described as of long duration, they disappeared over time when the pill's effects were described as of short duration.     

Personality Traits and Friendship Formation in Adolescent Girls

Summary

The present experiment demonstrated that Ss led to believe that an external cause is responsible for their arousal at seeing a woman in pain will be less likely to help her than those attributing their arousal to sympathy for her. Ten men and 10 women were told that exposure to an aversive noise would produce symptoms of physiological arousal; another 10 men and 10 women were told that irrelevant symptoms might occur. Those expecting irrelevant symptoms from noise bombardment helped a woman with a hurt knee significantly more than those expecting the noise to cause symptoms typical of arousal; these results provided support for both Schachter's cognitive attribution theory of emotion and Aronfreed's empathy theory of altruism.     

The effects of humor-induced arousal upon aggressive behavior

The present experiment attempted to reconcile previous results in the area of humor and aggression. It was hypothesized that humor serves two functions, arousal and attentional shift, with regard to its influence on the relation of prior anger arousal and aggression. As a test of this assumption, subjects in the present experiment were subjected to three forms of humor (high arousing, low arousing, nonhumor) after being angered or treated in a neutral manner by a confederate. In an analysis on subsequent aggression toward the confederate, it was found that female subjects reduced their aggression after exposure to low arousing humor while maintaining aggression at a high level for high arousing stimuli. Male subjects were not influenced by humor exposure. Possible reasons for this sex difference are examined in light of the arousal and attentional shift properties of humorous stimuli.     

An Island in a Sea of Development: An Examination of Place Attachment,Activity Type,and Crowding in an Urban National Park

ABSTRACT

As more people move to urban areas there will be increased pressure on existing green spaces to offer places for recreation, contemplation, historic interpretation, exercise, and nature appreciation. Development and a rise in population has led to too few public recreation sites available in many regions of the world resulting in unsustainable pressure being applied to parks. The objective of this study was to examine how place attachment may be related to type and frequency of park use and management issues regarding crowding. Data for this study were obtained via intercept survey of a random sample of visitors (N = 1088) at a park in the Metro Atlanta area, Georgia. Results suggest that place attachment had a significant relationship with frequency of visits and types of activities that visitors engaged in. There was, however, no significant relation between place attachment and crowding. First-time visitors and less frequent visitors felt most crowded, which may support the idea that the most frequent visitors expect it to be crowded and are, therefore, less sensitive to it. This study sheds light on how visitors to an urban park view their experience while recreating, and may inform policies and regulations that will help mitigate the unique management situations that urban parks present.     

Self-directed attention, awareness of bodily states, and suggestibility.

Two studies tested the hypothesis that self-directed attention would cause increased awareness of internal states and would thus reduce suggestibility effects. Experiment 1 applied this reasoning to the experience of an emotion. Males viewed moderately arousing slides of female nudes after being led to expect the slides to be either highly arousing or nonarousing. As predicted, ratings of the slides corresponded less with these experimentally-manipulated anticipations when self-focus was heightened by the presence of a mirror than when it was not. Experiment 2 examined a different internal experience: the perception of taste. Some subjects were led to expect a strong flavor as part of a test series, and other subjects were led to expect a weak flavor. Subjects high in private self-consciousness were less affected by this expectancy manipulation and more accurate in reporting their actual internal state than were subjects low in private self-consciousness. Discussion centers on the theoretical implications of the findings.     

What You Expect Is What You Believe (But Not Necessarily What You Get): A Test of the Effectiveness of Subliminal Self-Help Audiotapes

Seventy-eight subjects, ranging in age from 18 to 60 years, participated in an experiment on the effectiveness of commercially produced subliminal self-help audiotapes. Upon completing pretest memory and self-esteem tests, subjects randomly received either a subliminal self-help tape designed to improve memory or increase self-esteem and were told that they had received either a memory or a self-esteem tape. After listening to the tape for 5 weeks in a home environment, subjects returned to the laboratory for memory and self-esteem tests. The results showed that the subliminal self-help tapes did not affect any of the performance measures in a manner consistent with manufacturer claims. However, subjects' perceptions of personal improvement were consistent with their expectations. Specifically, subjects who thought they had listened to a self-esteem tape were more likely to indicate that their self-esteem had improved and subjects who thought they had listened to a memory tape were more likely to indicate their memory had improved regardless of the actual subliminal content.