Brooding and reflection: rumination predicts suicidal ideation at 1-year follow-up in a community sample

The cognitive processes underlying suicidal thinking and behavior are not well understood. The present study examined brooding and reflection, two dimensions of rumination, as predictors of suicidal ideation among a community sample of 1134 adults. Participants completed self-report measures of rumination and depression, and a semi-structured clinical interview that included an assessment of suicidal ideation, at baseline and 1-year follow-up. Brooding was more strongly related to degree of ideation at baseline than was reflection. However, both brooding and reflection predicted whether an individual thought about suicide at 1-year follow-up, even after adjusting for baseline suicidal ideation. Symptoms of depression mediated the relationship between brooding and ideation but not that between reflection and ideation. Implications for the nature of thought processes that result in suicidal thinking are discussed.     

The glass half-full or a hopeful outlook: Which explains more variance in interpersonal suicide risk in a psychotherapy clinic sample?

Recent research has suggested that constructs in the field of positive psychology may be important for understanding suicide risk. Specifically, both hope theory and dispositional optimism have been linked to lower levels of suicidal ideation and interpersonal suicide risk. Despite these encouraging findings, no study has investigated the relationships between hope, optimism, and suicide risk in a clinical sample. The current study aimed to address this gap and to determine if hope or optimism was more important for understanding suicide risk as operationalized by the interpersonal-psychological theory and suicidal ideation. Results of hierarchical regression analyses revealed that both hope and optimism predicted lower levels of burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness, but were not significant predictors of suicidal ideation. Further, results revealed that when both hope and optimism were entered into a hierarchical regression in the final step, only optimism remained significant. Theoretical and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Dispositional and explanatory style optimism as potential moderators of the relationship between hopelessness and suicidal ideation

To test the hypothesis that higher levels of optimism reduce the association between hopelessness and suicidal ideation, 284 college students completed self-report measures of optimism and Beck scales for hopelessness, suicidal ideation, and depression. A statistically significant interaction between hopelessness and one measure of optimism was obtained, consistent with the hypothesis that optimism moderates the relationship between hopelessness and suicidal ideation. Hopelessness is not inevitably associated with suicidal ideation. Optimism may be an important moderator of the association. The development of treatments to enhance optimism may complement standard treatments to reduce suicidality that target depression and hopelessness.     

Cognitive vulnerability to depression, rumination, hopelessness, and suicidal ideation: multiple pathways to self-injurious thinking

In order to advance the detection and prevention of suicide, recent research has focused on predictors of suicidal ideation and behavior such as negative cognitive styles, dysfunctional attitudes, hopelessness, and rumination. In this study the relationships among these risk factors in the context of the Attention Mediated Hopelessness (AMH) theory of depression are examined. One hundred and twenty-seven undergraduates in the Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression (CVD) project were followed for 2.5 years. The CVD project followed initially nondepressed freshmen, at either high or low cognitive risk for depression, in order to predict onsets and recurrences of depressive disorders. The presence and duration of suicidal ideation were predicted prospectively by rumination and hopelessness, and hopelessness partially mediated the relationship between rumination and ideation and fully mediated the association between rumination and duration of suicidality. Further, rumination mediated the relationship between cognitive vulnerability and suicidal ideation.     

Brooding and reflective rumination among suicide attempters: Cognitive vulnerability to suicidal ideation

Previous research suggests that the brooding subtype of rumination is associated with increased suicidal ideation, but findings are inconsistent with respect to reflection, considered to be the more adaptive form of rumination. This study investigated the circumstances under which reflective rumination might be associated with increased suicidal ideation by examining whether a suicide attempt history moderated the relationship between the ruminative subtypes and current suicidal ideation. Thirty-seven young adults who reported a past suicide attempt and fifty-nine young adults without a suicide attempt history completed measures of rumination and depression symptoms in an initial study session. They then completed a measure of suicidal ideation and hopelessness during a second study session. Overall, brooding was associated with higher self-reported suicidal ideation, whereas reflection was not significantly associated with ideation. However, reflection - but not brooding - interacted with suicide attempt history to statistically predict suicidal ideation, even after adjusting for symptoms of depression and hopelessness, whereas brooding no longer predicted ideation after adjusting for these symptoms. These findings qualify earlier suggestions that reflection is a more adaptive form of rumination by indicating that among vulnerable individuals - in particular those with a history of a suicide attempt - a higher degree of reflective rumination is associated with increased suicidal ideation.     

The Role of Hope and Optimism in Suicide Risk for American Indians/Alaska Natives

There are some American Indian/Alaska Native communities that exhibit high rates of suicide. The interpersonal theory of suicide (Joiner, 2005) posits that lethal suicidal behavior is likely preceded by the simultaneous presence of thwarted belongingness, perceived burdensomeness, and acquired capability. Past research has shown that hope and optimism are negatively related to suicidal ideation, some of the constructs in the interpersonal theory of suicide, and suicide risk for the general population. This is the first study to investigate hope and optimism in relation to suicidal ideation, thwarted belongingness, perceived burdensomeness, and acquired capability for American Indians/Alaska Natives. Results showed that hope and optimism negatively predicted thwarted belongingness, perceived burdensomeness, and suicidal ideation. However, these results were not found for acquired capability. Overall, this study suggests that higher levels of hope and optimism are associated with lower levels of suicidal ideation, thwarted belongingness, and perceived burdensomeness in this American Indian/Alaska Native sample.     

Mindfulness tempers the impact of personality on suicidal ideation

The Five Factor Model (FFM) domains of neuroticism and extraversion have consistently been related to suicidal ideation, such that individuals high in neuroticism or low in extraversion are at greater risk for suicidal thinking. The relationship between mindfulness and suicidal thoughts has not been empirically investigated in relation to personality. However, mindfulness has been shown to moderate the relationship between neuroticism and depression (Barnhofer, Duggan, & Griffith, 2011). The current study examined the relationship of the FFM domains, mindfulness, and suicidal ideation, and tested whether mindfulness would moderate the relationship between FFM domains and suicidal thinking. Results indicated that mindfulness weakened the relationship between neuroticism and suicidal ideation. Additionally, a strong negative relationship between suicidal ideation and extraversion was present at low levels of mindfulness. The possible importance of incorporating mindfulness practices in the prevention of suicidal thinking is discussed.     

Personality and cognitive processes: self-criticism and different types of rumination as predictors of suicidal ideation

Self-criticism and rumination have been related to suicidality. In the present study, we investigated the extent to which different types of rumination (brooding and reflection) mediate the relationship between self-criticism and suicidal ideation. Two hundred and thirty-two healthy adults completed a range of psychological inventories at Time 1 and were followed up approximately 3 months later (Time 2). Brooding was more strongly associated with suicidal ideation than reflection. Hierarchical regression analyses confirmed that among those who completed measures at both time points, brooding rumination fully mediated the self-criticism-Time 2 suicidal ideation relationship. Reflection did not mediate the self-criticism-suicidal ideation link. The findings support a growing corpus of research which highlights the utility of personality and cognitive factors in advancing our understanding of the suicidal process. The theoretical and clinical implications are discussed.     

The role of optimism in the interpersonal-psychological theory of suicidal behavior

A possible relationship between Joiner's (2005) interpersonal-psychological theory of suicidal behavior and optimism was investigated by examining the ability of optimism to act as a moderator of perceived burdensomeness, thwarted belongingness, and acquired capability to engage in self-injury in the prediction of suicidal ideation. Results supported hypotheses that optimism would serve as a moderator of the effects of thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness in the prediction of suicidal ideation; however, similar results were not found regarding the acquired capability to engage in self-injury. How optimism might play a role in alleviating suicidal ideation and clinical implications of the findings are discussed.     

The moderating effect of humor style on the relationship between interpersonal predictors of suicide and suicidal ideation

This study investigated how positive and negative humor styles relate to suicidal ideation, thwarted belongingness, and perceived burdensomeness. Analyses indicated that affiliative and self-defeating humor style moderated the relationships between thwarted belongingness and suicidal ideation as well as perceived burdensomeness and suicidal ideation when controlling for depression. The clinical importance of assessing and tracking humor styles as potential coping mechanisms against suicidal thinking is discussed.     

Self-Esteem and Social Support as Moderators of Depression,Body Image,and Disordered Eating for Suicidal Ideation in Adolescents

The current study investigated risk factors for suicidal ideation in a community sample of 392 adolescents (males 51.9 %; females 48.1 %), while also evaluating self-esteem, perceived parent support, and perceived peer support as protective factors and potential moderators between suicidal ideation and the 3 risk factors. Disordered eating, depression, parent support, and peer support were found to be significant predictors of current suicidal ideation, but body satisfaction was not. The relationship between depression and suicidal ideation was significantly moderated by both self-esteem and parent support, while the relationship between disordered eating and suicidal ideation was significantly moderated by peer support. Results underscore the importance of examining protective factors for suicide risk, as they have the potential to reduce suicidal ideation in adolescents.     

Positive and Negative Expectations of Hopelessness as Longitudinal Predictors of Depression,Suicidal Ideation,and Suicidal Behavior in High‐Risk Adolescents

The relationship between hopelessness and depression in predicting suicide‐related outcomes varies based on the anticipation of positive versus negative events. In this prospective study of adolescents at elevated risk for suicide, we used two Beck Hopelessness Scale subscales to assess the impact of positive and negative expectations in predicting depression, suicidal ideation, and suicidal behavior over a 2‐ to 4‐year period. In multivariate regressions controlling for depression, suicidal ideation, and negative‐expectation hopelessness, positive‐expectation hopelessness was the only significant predictor of depressive symptoms and suicidal behavior. Clinical interventions may benefit from bolstering positive expectations and building optimism.     

Relations Between Suicidal Ideation,Depression, and Emotional Autonomy from Parents in Adolescence

We examined the relations between depression, emotional autonomy quality-related constructs of separation and detachment, and suicidal ideation, focusing on the unique and common contribution that depression, separation and detachment made to suicidal ideation. We also examined gender differences. 403 adolescents, 196 boys and 207 girls, completed self-report measures of depression, separation and detachment, and suicidal ideation. The data showed a significant relation between depression and suicidal ideation both for boys and girls, and between detachment and suicidal ideation only for boys. Results for boys supported an additive model such that depression and detachment each contributed unique variance to boys’ suicidal ideation, and an interactive model such that detachment contributed to exacerbate the risk of suicidal ideation when boys were already at risk because of depression. The data for girls supported an interactive, but not additive, model such that depression and detachment did not contribute independently to girls’ suicidal ideation but in a joint way.     

Neuroticism,rumination, depression and suicidal ideation: A moderated serial mediation model across four countries

Background/objectiveResearch has highlighted the role of neuroticism, rumination, and depression in predicting suicidal thoughts, but studies on how these variables interplay are scarce. The aims of the present study were to test a model in which emotional stability (i.e., low neuroticism) would act as an antecedent and moderator of rumination and depressed mood in the prediction of suicidal ideation (i.e., moderated serial-mediation), and to explore their replicability across four countries and sex, among college students as an at-risk-group for suicide.MethodParticipants were 3482 undergraduates from U.S, Spain, Argentina, and the Netherlands. Path analysis and multi-group analysis were conducted.ResultsEmotional stability was indirectly linked to suicidal ideation via rumination and depressed mood. Moreover, emotional stability moderated the associations between rumination and depressed mood, and between depressed mood and suicidal ideation. Findings were consistent in males and females, and across countries studied.DiscussionRegardless of sex and country, people with low emotional stability reported higher levels of rumination, which in turn was associated with more depressed mood, and these were associated with higher reports of suicidal thoughts. This cascade of psychological risk factors for suicidal ideation seems to be more harmful in people who endorse low levels of emotional stability.     

Childhood Emotional Maltreatment as a Robust Predictor of Suicidal Ideation: A 3-Year Multi-Wave,Prospective Investigation

Despite literature suggesting a relationship between child maltreatment and suicidal ideation, few studies have examined the prospective course of this relationship. The current study examined this relationship in a sample of 682 community youth who were followed over the course of 3 years. Repeated measures of suicidal ideation, emotional maltreatment, and depressive symptom severity were examined in multi-wave path analysis models. Overall, results suggest that emotional maltreatment over time contributes uniquely to the prospective prediction of suicidal ideation, even when controlling for age, previous suicidal ideation, biological sex, and depression symptom severity. Unlike previous studies that have only measured emotional maltreatment at one-time point, the current study demonstrates that emotional maltreatment contributes unique risk to suicidal ideation prospectively among youth. Results speak to the importance of examining emotional maltreatment and suicidal ideation within prospective models of risk and suggest that emotional maltreatment is a robust predictor of suicidal ideation, over and above history of suicidal ideation and depression.     

青少年的乐观与创伤后成长的关系:希望与反刍的中介作用

采用创伤暴露程度问卷、乐观问卷、希望问卷、反刍问卷和创伤后成长问卷,以雅安地震2.5年后的416名中学生为被试,考察其乐观、希望、反刍与创伤后成长（PTG）之间的关系。结果发现,在控制创伤暴露程度后,雅安地震2.5年后青少年的乐观可以直接正向预测PTG,也可以经过希望来间接地正向预测PTG,还可以通过希望经主动反刍的多重中介来正向预测PTG;甚至乐观还可以通过侵入性反刍经主动反刍间接地负向预测PTG,但预测作用远小于乐观对PTG的促进作用;乐观通过希望不能经侵入性反刍对PTG发挥显著的直接和间接预测作用,且乐观还不能直接通过主动反刍促进PTG。     

Functional and dysfunctional impulsivity, depression, and suicidal ideation in a prison population

D. Lester (1993) was not able to show any association between dysfunctional impulsivity and suicidal ideation, but he did find a negative correlation between suicidal ideation and functional impulsivity. The correlation was weak and was not significant when depression was controlled for. Given the fact that college students were the participants in that study, the low correlations may have resulted from insufficient variance in the data. In the current study, data were collected from prisoners (half of whom had recently attempted suicide); correlations among the variables were stronger (but still quite low) than the correlations found in Lester's study. As expected, the association between dysfunctional impulsivity and suicidal ideation was stronger than that between functional impulsivity and suicidal ideation. However, consistent with Lester's study, these correlations were not significant when depression was controlled for. Results indicate that a direct association between impulsivity and suicidal ideation is unlikely.     

The Great Black Hope: Hope and Its Relation to Suicide Risk among African Americans

Positive psychology has garnered considerable scholarly interest recently and has been suggested to hold promise in the application to suicide research and prevention; however, empirical research has lagged behind these suggestions. This is the first study to examine the relationship between hope and a specific theory of suicide in African Americans. It was hypothesized that (1) hope would negatively predict the interpersonal suicide risk factors of burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness; and positively predict acquired capability to enact suicide; (2) hope would negatively predict suicidal ideation; and (3) the interpersonal suicide risk factors would predict suicidal ideation. Results were primarily as predicted. Implications for hope theory and Joiner's theory of suicidal behavior are discussed, as well as implications for clinical practice.     

Can Perceived Burdensomeness Explain the Relationship Between Suicide and Perfectionism?

The perception of being a burden to others has been associated with suicidal ideation and behavior. Maladaptive aspects of perfectionism have also been associated with suicidal thinking and behavior. The purpose of the current study was to investigate whether perceived burdensomeness would act as a mediator between maladaptive perfectionism and suicidal ideation. Results indicated that perceived burdensomeness mediated the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and suicidal ideation, which suggest that the perception of burdensomeness may be one aspect of the mechanism by which perfectionism can lead to such psychological distress that it becomes a predictor of suicidal ideation. Clinical implications of this relationship are discussed.     

Health-risk behaviors and suicidal ideation: a preliminary study of cognitive and developmental factors

Various theorists have suggested that unhealthy behaviors such as cigarette smoking and problem drinking may be subtle forms of suicidality. Consistent with this view, prior research has shown an association between health risk behaviors and suicidal ideation. In the present study we examined relationships among suicidal ideation, health-related attitudes and behaviors, and adverse childhood events. We hypothesized that unhealthy attitudes, perhaps shaped by adverse childhood events, would help explain the association between suicidal phenomena and unhealthy behaviors. Three-hundred eighteen college students completed surveys covering health risk behaviors, depression, suicidal ideation, and health-related attitudes. Results supported the hypothesized associations among these variables. However, contrary to our hypotheses, the association between suicidal ideation and health-compromising behaviors was limited largely to substance-related behaviors. Moreover, the association between suicidal ideation and health-related attitudes was mediated by depression. Adverse childhood events were associated with health-related attitudes, but this relationship was mediated by depression. These results are less suggestive of the notion of unhealthy behaviors as subtle suicidality than a model in which suicidality associates specifically with psychopathological states such as depression and substance abuse. Implications for treatment and prevention programs are discussed.