Parents' Differential Treatment of Adolescent Siblings in African American Families

Research on European and European American families suggests that parents' differential treatment of siblings has negative implications for youths' adjustment, but few studies have explored these dynamics in minority samples. This study examined parents' differential acceptance and conflict in a sample of mothers, fathers, and two adolescent siblings in 179 African American families who were interviewed on three annual occasions. In an effort to replicate findings from European and European American samples, we assessed the longitudinal associations between differential treatment and adolescent adjustment and tested three sibling characteristics (birth order, gender, and dyad gender composition) as potential moderators of these linkages. To illuminate the sociocultural context of differential treatment and its implications, we also explored parents' cultural socialization practices and experiences of financial stress as potential moderators of these links. Multilevel models revealed that, controlling for average parent–child relationship qualities, decreases in parental acceptance and increases in parent–youth conflict over time—relative to the sibling—were associated with increases in youths' risky behavior and depressive symptoms. Links between differential treatment and adjustment were not evident, however, when mothers engaged in high levels of cultural socialization and in families under high financial stress. The discussion highlights the significance of sociocultural factors in family dynamics.     

Effects of mothers' racial socialization and relationship quality on African American youth's school engagement: a profile approach

The purpose of this study was to examine the relation between profiles of adolescents' reports of their mothers' racial socialization (e.g., racial pride and racial barrier messages) and feelings toward their mothers' parenting (e.g., providing a warm, positive climate; using child-centered strategies) and youth engagement. This research addresses the paucity of literature that examines the impact of mothers' parenting as a buffer to declines in school engagement for African American youth. Given that parenting is embedded in a specific cultural niche, this study examines the synergy between racial socialization and mother-child relationship quality. Engagement outcomes consisted of a participant's ability to persist on task in the face of obstacles (task persistence) and their interest and active participation in class (academic engagement). Latent profile analysis on the sample of 94 self-identified African American youth (ages 11-14) revealed three profiles of racial socialization and affective relationship quality. The profiles and their associations with adolescent engagement are discussed. The findings support the importance of examining racial messages in tandem with broad parenting.     

Neighborhood context and adjustment in African American youths from single mother homes: the intervening role of hopelessness

African American youths from single mother homes are more likely to live in neighborhoods characterized by greater risk and fewer resources than youth from two parent homes or European American youths; in turn, such adverse conditions are associated with increased adjustment problems. Despite this well-established vulnerability, relatively little is known about variables linking neighborhood context to youth adjustment. With the aim of identifying a potential youth-focused intervening variable amenable to intervention, this study examined the intervening role of hopelessness in the association between neighborhood context and adjustment problems in a sample of 171 African American youths (11-16 year olds) from single mother homes. Findings revealed direct associations between neighborhood context and youth adjustment, as well as indirect associations through youth hopelessness, although findings varied by the marker of neighborhood context (sense of community or perceived crime) and adjustment (internalizing or externalizing problems). Building on prior work noting that hopelessness is amenable to psychosocial intervention, the present findings suggest that hopelessness may afford a valuable target for prevention and intervention programming among African American youths from single mother homes in the context of adverse neighborhood conditions.     

The influence of family routines on the resilience of low-income preschoolers

Using data from the Birth to Three Phase (1996–2001) of the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project, we investigated whether family routines at 14, 24, and 36 months play a role in the development of children's self-regulation and cognitive ability at 36 months. The moderating effects of child sex and race/ethnicity were also examined. Analyses revealed that routines do matter for child outcomes; concurrent routines appear to be critical for fostering self-regulation at 36 months, whereas early routines may be important for children's later cognitive ability. Second, the effects differed by child sex, with early routines having a stronger association for girls and concurrent routines having a stronger association for boys. Associations also varied by race/ethnicity such that routines appear to matter slightly more for African–American children than European–American and Hispanic children. Implications of these findings with respect to strength-based interventions for low-income preschoolers and their families are discussed.     

Ethnic Differences in the Developmental Significance of Parentification

Using an ecological framework, this 2‐wave longitudinal study examined the effects of parentification on youth adjustment across the transition to adolescence in a high‐risk, low‐income sample of African American (58%) and European American (42%) mother–child dyads (T1 M_age = 10.17 years, T2 M_age = 14.89 years; 52.4% female). Children's provision of family caregiving was moderately stable from early to late adolescence. Emotional and instrumental parentification evidenced distinct long‐term effects on adolescents' psychopathology and the quality of the parent–child relationship. Ethnicity moderated these relations. Emotional and instrumental parentification behaviors were associated with predominantly negative outcomes among European American youth in the form of increased externalizing behavior problems and decreased parent–child relationship quality, whereas emotional parentification was associated with positive outcomes among African American youth in the form of increased parent–child relationship quality, and instrumental parentification was neutral. These findings support a multidimensional view of parentification as a set of culturally embedded phenomena whose effects can only be understood in consideration of the context in which they occur.     

A Review of Childrearing in African American Single Mother Families: The Relevance of a Coparenting Framework

Clinical research on African American single mother families has focused largely on mother-child dyads, with relatively less empirical attention to the roles of other adults or family members who often assist with childrearing. This narrow definition of “family” fails to take into account the extended family networks which often provide support for African American single mother families and the influence of these other adults on maternal parenting and youth adjustment. Our review integrates the literature on the role of extended family members, highlights the strengths and limitations of this work, and proposes the use of theory and methods from the coparenting literature to guide future study in this area. The relevance of the study of coparenting for family-based intervention efforts targeting African American youth from single mother homes is addressed.     

Perceptions of Adequate Personal Time and Wellbeing among African American Families with Adolescents

The current study examines the perception of adequate personal or leisure time, and its association with family and caregiver functioning, among a sample of low-income African American families. The investigation is grounded in Conservation of Resources (COR) theory which predicts that caregivers who perceive more adequate personal time will also report higher levels of optimism and lower levels of depressive symptoms, and will have adolescents who report more household routines and less psychologically controlling parenting. A total of 115 caregiver-adolescent (age 14–18) dyads were recruited from a low-income, predominantly African American neighborhood in a major metropolitan center in the United States as part of a larger survey on African American family life. Results indicate that caregivers report perceiving inadequate amounts of time to sleep, get enough exercise, and relax. Caregivers also report comparatively less adequate personal time than time with children. Analyses reveal that caregivers who perceive having more adequate leisure or personal time, report fewer depressive symptoms and higher levels of optimism, after controlling for perceptions of adequate financial resources. Alternatively, there was no association between perceptions of free or leisure time and parenting behaviors, including maintenance of household routines and the use of psychological control. The results underscore the need to examine non-material resources, and their association with wellbeing.     

The Role of Race in the Association between Corporal Punishment and Externalizing Problems: Does Punishment Severity Matter?

Parental corporal punishment is frequently associated with emotional and behavioral problems among youth. Some researchers propose that this association does not exist in African–American families, although the literature is mixed. Among recent studies, there is a lack of standardization in the measure of corporal punishment, which may help explain the inconsistent findings. The present study used a community sample (N = 106, 34 % African–American, 48 % female) to test for racial differences in the association between corporal punishment and youths’ aggression and delinquency, while examining different corporal punishment types separately by severity level. The three corporal punishment variables were spanking, severe corporal punishment (hitting and hitting with an object), and total corporal punishment (a composite of spanking, hitting, and hitting with an object). Regression analyses revealed that race moderated the association between corporal punishment and delinquency, although this moderation was contingent upon the corporal punishment variable. Specifically, severe corporal punishment and total corporal punishment were associated with delinquency only for Caucasian and not African–American youth. The model testing spanking and delinquency was not moderated by race. Additionally, race moderated the association between severe corporal punishment and youth aggression. Findings suggest that corporal punishment is associated with youth externalizing problems, but that this varies based upon race, severity of corporal punishment, and type of externalizing problem.     

Universal Prevention Exposure as a Moderator of the Community Context: Findings from the PROSPER Project

This study examined how participation in a universal family skills‐building program may interact with community risks and resources to produce youth outcomes. Prior research has noted community‐level variability in risk and protective factors, but thus far no study has examined the role that participation on a community‐wide intervention may play in moderating the effects of community risks or resources. The study included 14 communities (seven in Iowa, seven in Pennsylvania) that implemented a family focused evidence‐based program as part of the PROSPER project. Community level variables included both risk factors (percent of low income families, the availability of alcohol and tobacco, norms regarding adolescent substance use, incidence of drug‐related crimes) and community resources (proactive school leadership, availability of youth‐serving organizations, and student involvement in youth activities). The proximal youth and family outcomes included youth perceptions of their parents’ management skills, parent–child activities, and family cohesion. Results indicated that the Strengthening Families Program:10–14 may have moderated the impact of the community risks and resources on community‐level youth outcomes; risk levels meaningfully associated with community‐level change in program participants, though these results varied somewhat by outcome. Generally, higher levels of resources also meaningfully associated with more positive change after participating in the family‐focused intervention. These results suggest that the effect of some evidence‐based programs may be even stronger in some communities than others; more research in this area is needed.     

Family and Contextual Predictors of Depressive Symptoms in Inner-City African American Youth

Family and contextual predictors of depression in inner-city, African American youth have rarely been examined. In this study we explore the contribution of current and historical life events, family conflict, perceived social support from mother, maternal depression, and maternal explanatory style to the depressive symptoms of inner-city African American school-age (M = 10.7 years) children. Home interviews were conducted with 89 mother and child dyads living in moderate- to high-violent areas of a southeastern city. Regression analyses revealed that the children in this sample with higher levels of depressive symptoms had higher levels of child-reported everyday stress, were more likely to have been abused at some point in their past, came from homes with mothers who were less well educated, and had mothers who reported higher levels of depression, a past history of domestic abuse, as well as a less pessimistic explanatory style. Implications for interventions with inner-city African American families are discussed.     

Understanding the Relationship between Religiosity and Caregiver–Adolescent Communication About Sex within African-American Families

Caregiver–adolescent communication about sex plays a critical role in the sexual socialization of youth. Many caregivers, however, do not engage their youth in such conversations, potentially placing them at risk for negative sexual health outcomes. Lack of caregiver–adolescent communication about sex may be particularly harmful for rural African American youth, as they often report early sex initiation and are disproportionately impacted by STIs. Moreover, sexual communication may be particularly challenging for families with strong religious backgrounds, potentially affecting the occurrence and breadth of topics covered during communication. Study aims were to: determine whether there was a relationship between caregiver religiosity and type of topics covered during communication about sex (e.g., general sexual health vs. positive aspects of sexuality) among 435 caregivers of early adolescent, African American youth; and if so, identify factors that might explain how religiosity affects communication about sex. Results indicated that caregiver religiosity was positively associated with communication about general, but not positive aspects of sexuality for caregivers of males. Attitudes towards communication about sex and open communication style mediated the relationship. There was no association between religiosity and communication about sex for caregivers of females. The findings from this study could provide a base to better understand and support the sexual socialization process within religious, African American families.     

Parenting profiles of academic and racial socialization: Associations with academic engagement and academic self-beliefs of African American adolescents

In addition to being involved and encouraging their youth academically, many African American caregivers also employ socialization practices that prepare their adolescents for entering into a school system where they will be an ethnic minority or be taught by predominantly non-minority educators. The purpose of the current investigation was to fill existing gaps in the literature by examining two dimensions of parental socialization practices: academic socialization (parent school involvement and academic encouragement) and racial socialization (cultural pride, preparation for bias, and egalitarian messages). Additionally, this study examined how the identified profiles are associated with African American adolescents' academic outcomes (academic engagement and academic self-beliefs). A latent profile analysis was utilized to analyze data on 140 African American adolescent participants (M = 12.4; SD = 1.13; 56% female). Profiles that were identified included (a) academic socializers, (b) low race salient socializers, (c) preparation for bias socializers, (d) unengaged socializers, (e) multifaceted socializers, and (f) race salient socializers. Although there was no demographic (age, gender, SES) variation in profile membership, there were some differences in academic engagement and adolescents' academic-self beliefs. Findings highlight the importance of examining how academic and racial socialization work together and their association with adolescents' academic outcomes. Implications are discussed for school psychologists and educators.     

Family Functioning and the Course of Adolescent Bipolar Disorder

The symptoms of bipolar disorder affect and are affected by the functioning of family environments. Little is known, however, about the stability of family functioning among youth with bipolar disorder as they cycle in and out of mood episodes. This study examined family functioning and its relationship to symptoms of adolescent bipolar disorder, using longitudinal measures of family cohesion, adaptability, and conflict. Parent- and adolescent-reported symptom and family functioning data were collected from 58 families of adolescents with bipolar disorder (mean age = 14.48 ± 1.60; 33 female, 25 male) who participated in a 2-year randomized trial of family-focused treatment for adolescents (FFT-A). Cohesion and adaptability scores did not significantly change over the course of the study. Parent-reported conflict prior to psychosocial treatment moderated the treatment responses of families, such that high-conflict families participating in FFT-A demonstrated greater reductions in conflict over time than low-conflict families. Moreover, adolescent mania symptoms improved more rapidly in low-conflict than in high-conflict families. For all respondents, cohesion, adaptability, and conflict were longitudinally correlated with adolescents’ depression scores. Finally, decreases in parent-reported conflict also predicted decreases in adolescents’ manic symptoms over the 2-year study. Findings suggest that family cohesion, adaptability, and conflict may be useful predictors of the course of adolescent mood symptoms. Family conflict may be an important target for family intervention in early onset bipolar disorder.     

Context-Dependent Pathways of the Transmission of Risk from Communities to Individuals

Research has consistently documented the role of environmental risk factors in the onset of delinquent behavior among youth. Less is known about the processes through which these contextual risks are translated to individual youth behavior. The aim of the current study is to examine the role of family risk factors in the transmission of community risk. Data was obtained from a nationally representative sample of over 30,000 middle school youth and community key informants (CKI). A multilevel, moderated mediation model was estimated with family risk as the moderator of the effect of CKI ratings of community risk on youth perceptions of risk. Results showed that when youth came from low risk families (measured by parental use of positive family management strategies), youth perceptions of risk mediated the effects of community risk on youth delinquency; however, there was no evidence of a significant mediated effect under conditions of high risk (measured by poor family management). This appears to be because youth from high-risk families perceived their neighborhoods as high-risk, regardless of actual levels of risk (as reported by CKI). This study finds that the relationship between communities and adolescent behavior is complex and interacts with the family environment.     

The Relationship Between Perceptions of Neighborhood Characteristics and Substance Use Among Urban African American Adolescents

Although the neighborhood microsystem is recognized as an important domain for adolescent development, relative to the family and peer contexts, neighborhood factors have been understudied in relation to adolescent substance abuse. In addition, recent research suggests that risk factors for adolescent substance use may differ for African Americans when compared to Caucasian youth. This study investigated the association between perceived neighborhood disorganization and later substance use, as well as possible mediators of that association, among a community sample of urban African American adolescents. Perceptions of neighborhood disorganization (i.e., violence/safety and drug activity) in grade 7 were associated with increased tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use in grade 9. For females, this association was mediated by attitudes about drug use and perceptions of drug harmfulness. Findings highlight the importance of neighborhood contextual variables for African American substance use. Implications and directions for future research are presented.     

教育价值观和逆境信念在家庭经济压力与初中生学业成就之间的作用

大量研究表明,家庭经济压力对青少年学业成就具有显著的不利影响。但是,目前学界对家庭经济压力“怎样”（中介机制）以及“何时”（调节机制）影响青少年学业成就仍知之甚少。本研究在整合贫困文化模型及心理韧性理论的基础上构建一个有调节的中介模型,考察青少年教育价值观（读书是否有用）在家庭经济压力与学业成就之间的中介作用,同时检验中国文化逆境信念对该中介路径的调节作用。采用随机整群抽样,选取四川省9所普通中学1613名初中生（平均年龄13.42岁,SD = 1.22）作为研究对象。被试匿名填写家庭经济压力问卷、教育价值观问卷、中国文化逆境信念量表以及学业成就问卷。结果表明：（1）在控制了性别、年龄等人口学变量后,家庭经济压力显著负向预测学业成就。（2）教育价值观在家庭经济压力与学业成就之间具有部分中介作用。（3）积极逆境信念能缓冲家庭经济压力对教育价值观的消极作用,进而减少对学业成就的不利影响。本研究证实了“读书无用论”是经济困难与学业成就的重要联系机制,并肯定了中国文化逆境信念对经济困难青少年的保护作用。这一内在保护机制的揭示对教育实践有一定的启示。     

Coparenting Experiences in African American Families: An Examination of Single Mothers and their Nonmarital Coparents

African American youth from single‐mother homes continue to be overrepresented in statistics on risk behavior and delinquency, a trend that many be attributed to father‐absence, socioeconomic disadvantage, and compromises in parenting more typical of single than two‐parent families. Yet, this risk‐focused perspective ignores a long‐standing strength of the African American community, the involvement and potential protective impact of extended family members in childrearing. This study describes the experiences of 95 African American single mothers and their nonmarital coparents who participated in a study of African American single‐mother families with an 11–16‐year‐old child. Specifically, the study examines: (a) the extent to which nonmarital coparents are involved in childrearing; (b) the relative levels of risk (i.e., depression, mother–coparent conflict) and protective (i.e., parenting) associated with maternal and coparent involvement; and (c) how similarly and/or differently coparent and mother variables operate with regard to youth externalizing problems. Findings reveal that a range of family members and other adults actively participate in childrearing in African American single‐mother families, coparents do not differ from mothers on certain study variables (i.e., depression and mother–coparent conflict) but do for others (parenting), and coparent involvement is associated with youth adjustment in ways that are similar to our more established understanding of maternal involvement. The potential clinical implications of the findings are discussed and future research directions are highlighted.     

Parental Physical Punishment and Adolescent Adjustment: Bidirectionality and the Moderation Effects of Child Ethnicity and Parental Warmth

This study used cross-lagged modeling to examine reciprocal relations between maternal and paternal physical punishment and adolescent misconduct and depressive symptoms, while accounting for stability in both physical punishment and adjustment problems over time. Data were drawn from a sample of 862 two-parent families and their adolescent children (52 % males; 54 % European American; 44 % African American; 2 % other ethnic backgrounds). Mothers’ and fathers’ physical punishment of their adolescents’ ages 12 and 14 predicted increased misconduct and depressive symptoms among these adolescents at ages 14 and 16. Adolescent misconduct, but not depressive symptoms, at ages 12 and 14 predicted increased physical punishment by their parents at ages 14 and 16. Neither parental warmth nor child ethnicity moderated the longitudinal relationship between parental physical punishment and adolescent adjustment. Patterns of findings were similar across mothers and fathers.     

Family Matters: The Role of Mental Health Stigma and Social Support on Depressive Symptoms and Subsequent Help Seeking Among African American Boys

African American adolescent boys underutilize mental health service due to stigma associated with depression. Gaining an increased understanding of how depressed, African American adolescent boys perceive their mental health needs and engage in help-seeking behaviors might play an essential role in efforts to improve their symptoms and access to care. Using a mixed-methods design, this study examined the influence of mental health stigma and social support on depressive symptoms among African American adolescent boys. Findings indicated the protective effects of social support in decreasing depressive symptoms, especially when participants experienced mental health stigma. Results also revealed the pivotal role of family social support over both professional and peer support for participants who struggled with depressive symptoms. The primacy of family support among the sample, combined with the frequent distrust of professionals and peer networks, would indicate that working with families may improve initial identification of depression among African American adolescent boys and decrease their barriers to care.     

Rural African American Adolescents' Future Orientation: The Importance of Self-Efficacy,Control and Responsibility,and Identity Development

Future orientation has been linked to a range of positive adolescent outcomes (e.g., Nurmi, 1991, 1993; Pulkkinen & Ronka, 1994), whereas a lack of orientation to the future has been associated with delinquency (e.g., Oyserman & Saltz, 1993; Trommsdorff & Lamm, 1980). The purpose of this study was to examine variation in future education and future career orientation within a sample of rural, African American adolescents. It was found that identity exploration and commitment, self-efficacy, control, and responsibility were predictive of future orientation. Furthermore, grade level moderated the relation between control and responsibility and future orientation; for younger adolescents, greater perceived control and responsibility was related to a stronger future orientation. In addition, gender moderated the relation between identity exploration and future orientation; for male adolescents, having higher levels of identity exploration was related to a stronger future orientation.