Personality in middle childhood: A hierarchical structure and longitudinal connections with personality in late adolescence

Research on the structure of personality in middle childhood, while advancing, is still in the early stages of development. In this study, we employed a group of 1563 twins to elucidate the hierarchical structure of personality in middle childhood and provide connections to established personality traits in adult populations. Our results provide evidence for a higher-order structure of personality in middle childhood that maps on to recent findings in adult populations supporting hierarchical relationships among 2-, 3-, 4-, and 5-factor models of personality. In addition, primary higher-order personality traits rated by parents at age 11 showed substantial predictive validity for analogous traits rated by self at age 17. We discuss our results within the context of developing a convergent hierarchical taxonomy of personality in middle childhood and the importance of multi-informant investigations.     

Childhood abuse and vulnerability to depression: Cognitive scars in otherwise healthy young adults

Models of depression vulnerability posit that negative early experiences, such as exposure to childhood abuse (CA), increase vulnerability to depression later in life. Though most victims of CA do not go on to develop depression, the question remains as to whether these individuals retain cognitive ‘scars’ that may contribute to depression vulnerability. The present study examined the relationship between self-reported, retrospective CA and cognitive vulnerability to depression in a carefully selected sample of young adults without current or past psychopathology. We measured cognitive vulnerability with both a self-report questionnaire, the Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale (DAS), and a measure of information processing bias, the Scrambled Sentences Test (SST). Self-reported severity of CA was associated with increased cognitive vulnerability to depression on both the DAS and SST. Vulnerability to depression as measured by the SST, but not by the DAS, prospectively predicted increases in depressive symptoms over a 6-month period. Scores on the SST also interacted with CA to predict increases in depressive symptoms. These findings demonstrate the pernicious effects of CA even in those without current or past psychopathology.     

Child abuse and negative explicit and automatic self-associations: The cognitive scars of emotional maltreatment

Individuals reporting Childhood Abuse (CA) (i.e., emotional neglect, emotional-, physical- and sexual-abuse) are marked by increased explicit (i.e. self-reported) negative self-associations, and an increased risk to develop depression or anxiety disorders. Automatic self-associations might play an important role in the development and maintenance of affective disorders after exposure to CA, since automatic associations are assumed to be involved in uncontrolled (spontaneous) affective behavior. This study examined whether individuals reporting a history of CA show stronger automatic (and explicit) self-depression and/or self-anxiety associations than individuals who report no CA in a large cohort study (Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety (NESDA), n = 2981). The Implicit Association Test (IAT) was utilized to assess automatic self-depression and self-anxiety associations. We found that CA was associated with enhanced automatic (and explicit) self-depression and self-anxiety associations. Additionally, when compared to physical- and sexual-abuse, Childhood Emotional Maltreatment (CEM; emotional abuse and emotional neglect) had the strongest link with enhanced automatic (and explicit) self-depression and self-anxiety associations. In addition, automatic and explicit negative self-associations partially mediated the association between CEM and depressive or anxious symptomatology. Implications regarding the importance of CA, and CEM in particular will be discussed.     

Social and emotional outcomes of childhood sexual abuse: A review of recent research

A total of 41 articles examined the social and emotional outcomes of childhood sexual abuse. The outcomes examined included suicide and substance use, gang involvement, pregnancy, running away, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), risky sexual behavior, and behavioral problems. Results for each of these outcomes tended to vary by developmental period. However, problems of internalizing and externalizing behavior appeared to be specific to sexually abused children of all age groups. Some studies found differences in outcome according to gender, race, and age. Although findings related to abuse characteristics were found to vary from study to study, severity of the abuse, use of force, and victim's relationship to the perpetrator were found to be especially important. Other factors, such as family support and parental monitoring, were found to mitigate a negative outcome. Limitations are discussed along with suggestions for future research.     

Response expectancy theory and application: A decennial review

Response expectancy is the anticipation of automatic, subjective, and behavioral responses to particular situational cues. More than a decade of research in diverse laboratories indicates that response expectancies are important considerations in designing and administering treatments and prevention programs for such problems as anxiety disorders, depression, substance abuse, and sexual dysfunction. Response expectancy also plays a central role in the effects of antidepressive medication, psychotherapy, and hypnosis. In addition, studies of the effects of placebos reveal that response expectancies can produce lasting changes in pain, anxiety, depression, alertness, tension, sexual arousal, alcohol craving and consumption, aggression, asthma, warts, and contact dermatitis. The veracity of many self-reported placebo effects have been corroborated by changes in physiological function.     

Elucidating the relation between childhood emotional abuse and depressive symptoms in adulthood: The mediating role of maladaptive interpersonal processes

ObjectiveThe purpose of this study is to assess the potential unique and relative mediating effects of three interpersonal risk factors (i.e., excessive reassurance-seeking [ERS], negative feedback seeking [NFS], and rejection sensitivity [RS]) in the relationship between childhood emotional abuse (CEA) and depressive symptoms.MethodOne hundred eighty-five undergraduates were followed over a four-month interval. Participants completed assessments of childhood abuse history, ERS, NFS, and RS, and depressive symptoms at baseline, as well as depressive symptoms at four-month followup.ResultsFindings from single-mediator analyses indicated that RS and NFS, but not ERS, mediated the relationship between CEA and prospective depressive symptoms, after accounting for childhood sexual and physical abuse, as well as baseline depressive symptoms. In our multi-mediator model, only RS remained a significant mediator of the relationship between CEA and prospective depressive symptoms.ConclusionsThe current study provides preliminary evidence that negative behavioral styles may function as a mechanism linking prior experiences of CEA to subsequent depressive symptoms. Clinical implications of these findings suggest that targeting maladaptive behavioral tendencies, particularly RS, may be an effective adjunct in behavioral modification treatments of CEA victims at risk for depression.     

Stress Sensitization and Adolescent Depressive Severity as a Function of Childhood Adversity: A Link to Anxiety Disorders

The goal of the present study was to determine whether exposure to adversity in childhood contributes to a differential threshold at which stressful life events provoke depressive reactions in adolescence. In addition, to address empirical and conceptual questions about stress effects, the moderating effect of anxiety disorder history was also explored. This examination was conducted in a sample of 816 children of depressed and nondepressed mothers, who were followed from birth to age 15. Information on adversities experienced in childhood was collected both from mothers during the first five years of their youth's life and from the youths themselves at age 15, and included information on the mother's relationship with her partner, maternal psychopathology, as well as youth-reported abuse. Results indicated that youths with both greater exposure to adversity in childhood and a history of an anxiety disorder displayed increased depressive severity following low levels of episodic stress compared to youths with only one or neither of these risk factors. The results are speculated to reflect the possibility that early anxiety disorders associated with exposure to adversity in childhood may be a marker of dysregulated stress responses, and may help to account for the comorbidity of depression and anxiety in some individuals.     

Childhood antecedents of Agreeableness: A longitudinal study from preschool to late adolescence

Although the consensus view is that Agreeableness originates from childhood difficultness and regulatory deficits, few studies have investigated such assumptions longitudinally. In this study, we examined this issue by assessing enduring and mediating effects of self-regulation as well as the impact of parenting behaviors on the development of Agreeableness from preschool to late adolescence. Longitudinal data from 965 Norwegian families following children from 1.5 years to 16.5 years were used. Path analyses revealed childhood difficultness at age 4 to be related to Agreeableness at age 16.5; this effect was mediated through emotion regulation in late childhood. However, such mediation effects were primarily found when parents used punitive practices towards their children. Our findings point to personality coherence throughout development.     

Covering all the BAS’s: A closer look at the links between BIS,BAS, and socio-emotional functioning in childhood

The purpose of this study was to investigate associations between the BIS, BAS, and socio-emotional functioning in childhood. Participants were 368 children (181 boys) ranging in age from 9 to 13 years (M_age = 10.16, SD = .95). Children provided self-report assessments of BIS/BAS sensitivity, indices of internalizing problems (e.g., depression, social anxiety, loneliness), and perceptions of their peer relations. Parents also rated child internalizing and externalizing problems. Results from confirmatory factor-analysis suggested that the three-factor solution for the BAS (typically reported in adult samples) provided a better fit of the data than a one-factor (typically employed in previous studies with children). Moreover, BAS subscales were associated differentially with different indices of socio-emotional functioning. Support for the joint subsystems hypothesis was also found, with specific BAS subscales serving as moderators of the relations between the BIS and socio-emotional functioning.     

Drinking not thinking: A prospective study of personality traits and drinking motives on alcohol consumption across the first year of university

The aim of this 3-wave prospective study was to test impulsivity-related and anxiety-related traits and drinking motives as predictors of alcohol consumption during Orientation Week (O-Week), and the first six months of university life in on-campus college residents. Students from two residential colleges (N = 255, 34.5% female) completed surveys of drinking frequency and quantity for the week prior to university entry, during O-Week, 3 and 6 months later. A brief personality screen for impulsivity, sensation-seeking, anxiety sensitivity and hopelessness was administered along with measures of drinking motives and alcohol consumption. Using moderated mediation analyses and multilevel modeling, impulsivity was found to be the best predictor of drinking variability at O-Week with enhancement motives mediating the effect. This mediated effect was moderated by gender with the indirect effect only occurring for women. Impulsivity was also predictive of drinking change over 6 months, with high impulsive students maintaining heavier levels of drinking (even when controlling for gender). The findings of this study further supports impulsivity as a consistent predictor of student alcohol misuse, even in environments with strong pro-drinking cultures.     

Happy States of America: A state-level analysis of psychological, economic, and social well-being

Cross-national research indicates that well-being is comparatively high in wealthy nations where importance is placed on freedom, self-expression, and independence. The present research aimed to replicate and extend previous work by examining the geographic distribution and correlates of well-being within the US. Links between the Gallup Organization’s Well-being Index and state-level indicators of wealth, class structure, education, social diversity, and personality were examined. Results suggested that residents of states with high levels of well-being were wealthier, better educated, more tolerant, and emotionally stable compared to residents of states with comparatively low levels of well-being. Analyses indicated that connections between well-being and class structure, diversity, and personality remained after controlling income. Causes and consequences of regional differences in well-being are discussed.     

Extraversion and psychopathology: A multilevel hierarchical review

We examine relations between extraversion and psychopathology, using a four-level hierarchical structure in which the general domain is divided into two aspects (Communal Extraversion, Agentic Extraversion), four consensual facets (Sociability, Liveliness, Venturesomeness, Dominance), and six NEO facets (Gregariousness, Warmth, Positive Emotions, Activity, Excitement-Seeking, Assertiveness). Our review indicates that extraversion’s negative correlations with depression primarily reflect the aspect of Communal Extraversion, the consensual facet of Liveliness, and NEO Positive Emotions. Its negative associations with social dysfunction largely are due to the aspect of Communal Extraversion, the consensual facet of Sociability, and NEO Warmth, Gregariousness, and Positive Emotions. Finally, externalizing and mania are positively related to the aspect of Agentic Extraversion, the consensual facets of Venturesomeness and Dominance, and NEO Excitement-Seeking.     

Social investment in work reliably predicts change in conscientiousness and agreeableness: A direct replication and extension of Hudson,Roberts, and Lodi-Smith (2012)

The present study was a close replication of Hudson, Roberts, and Lodi-Smith (2012). Participants’ personality traits and social investment in work were measured twice over three years. Latent change models were used to examine the associations among the intercepts (levels) and slopes (changes) for these variables. Results revealed that levels of all of the big five traits except openness were generally related to levels of social investment at work. Longitudinally, changes in social investment in work were generally associated with simultaneously co-occurring changes in only conscientiousness and agreeableness. Age did not moderate these correlated changes. Overall, the results directly replicated those of Hudson et al. (2012) and suggest that personality traits develop in concert with job experiences.     

A latent profile analysis of the Five Factor Model of personality: Modeling trait interactions

Interactions among the dimensions of the Five Factor Model (FFM) have not typically been evaluated in mental health research, with the extant literature focusing on bivariate relationships with psychological constructs of interest. This study used latent profile analysis to mimic higher-order interactions to identify homogenous personality profiles using the FFM, and also examined relationships between resultant profiles and affect, self-esteem, depression, anxiety, and coping efficacy. Participants (N = 371) completed self-report and daily diary questionnaires. A 3-profile solution provided the best fit to the data; the profiles were characterized as well-adjusted, reserved, and excitable. The well-adjusted group reported better psychological functioning in validation analyses. The reserved and excitable groups differed on anxiety, with the excitable group reporting generally higher anxiety than the reserved group. Latent profile analysis may be a parsimonious way to model personality heterogeneity.     

Diagnosing posttraumatic stress disorder with the MMPI clinical scales: A review of the literature

A review of the literature resulted in 21 published studies that reported mean MMPI profile patterns for PTSD patients. Of these, six (29%) reported that the mean 8-2 profile pattern significantly differentiated PTSD patients from non-PTSD patients. The majority of studies found additional PTSD profile patterns reflecting nearly all of the MMPI clinical scales. The data indicate some common group profile patterns for inpatient veterans, prisoner's of war, and inpatient veteran substance abusers. The results also support the hypothesis that there is a continuum from inpatient to outpatient and veteran to civilian populations that corresponds with both symptom and stressor severity. It is concluded that although there is some typicality in similar populations, clinicians should expect heterogeneous MMPI profiles from PTSD patients representing a diversity of clinical symptoms and styles.     

Longitudinal relations between psychological distress and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity: A latent change score approach

ObjectivesThe effect of physical inactivity on mental health risk is well established; however, less is known about about how psychological distress might deter participation in physical activity. Guided by advancements in the treatment of longitudinal data, the aim of this study was to examine patterns and predictors of change in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and psychological distress (e.g., feeling nervous, worthless).Design methodAustralian adults (4944 females, M_age = 34.63 years ±5.34; 4322 males, M_age = 37.51 years ±6.14) provided baseline data as part of the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC) and were followed for measurements every two years for 10 years.ResultsLatent change score analyses revealed support for a reciprocal effects model, whereby change in MVPA and psychological distress occurred as a function of individuals’ prior levels of, and/or prior change in these variables.ConclusionsThis investigation is the first to document that changes in MVPA and psychological distress are coupled temporally. Notably, we observed that individuals’ distress levels at a given time point predicted subsequent change on both MVPA and distress; a finding which provides novel and important insight into how adults’ activity levels and psychological distress fluctuate relative to one another.     

The Grandiose Narcissism Scale: A Global and Facet-Level Measure of Grandiose Narcissism

The Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) is the primary measure of grandiose narcissism (GN) despite possessing numerous limitations. Here we present a new 33-item measure of GN called the Grandiose Narcissism Scale (GNS) that exhibits a reproducible seven-factor structure that maps on to Raskin and Terry’s (1988) seven factor model. GNS subscales exhibit high reliability, with several being substantially more reliable than their NPI counterparts. As a full-scale, the GNS correlates with other variables in a way that is consistent with the theoretical portrait of GN. Additionally, two of the GNS subscales (entitlement, exploitativeness) are shown to uniquely predict independent measures of entitlement and exploitativeness, suggesting good subscale validity. Cumulatively, the GNS represents a viable complement or alternative to the NPI.     

Traumatic stress and psychological adjustment in treatment-seeking women sexually abused in childhood: A follow-up

The objective of this study was to assess post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), psychological distress, and risk factors among women sexually abused in childhood (CSA) after six months in therapy. Thirty in-treatment CSA survivors reported their abuse history and filled out several questionnaires. Comparisons were made to a non-CSA in-treatment sample. Although, 50% of the CSA women still had PTSD, there was a remarkable decrease in PTSD symptoms (Cohen's d = 1.06). A considerable change in self-worth and in attachment styles was found. It was concluded that CSA survivors benefit much from 6 months of weekly treatment. However, it is recommended that treatment should continue for a still longer period.     

Demographic factors,childhood maltreatment and psychological functioning among university students' in Ghana: A retrospective study

This study retrospectively investigates the influence of child (i.e., gender), care‐giver (e.g., who grew up with), household size (i.e., number of siblings grew up with) and community (i.e., rural versus urban) factors on childhood maltreatment, as well as the impacts of maltreatment on psychological functioning. A cross‐sectional survey and self‐report methodology is used to gather data from 300 students of the University of Ghana. The results show that being a male, growing up in rural areas, living with more than 3 siblings in the same household and being raised by both biological parents have significant main effects on childhood maltreatment. Analyses of the interaction effects show that living with more than 5 siblings in a rural household with “other” parents (i.e., non‐biological parents) has a significant effect on physical abuse. Furthermore, males from rural households consisting of more than 3 siblings and who did not grow up with both biological parents endorsed significantly more physical abuse and physical neglect, compared with the females. With respect to the psychological outcome, childhood maltreatment significantly predicts and account for significant variance in depression (34%), self‐efficacy (18%) and life satisfaction (22%). The findings and the implications of the study are briefly discussed.     

Multigenerational Sexual Abuse: A Cognitive Developmental Approach to Understanding Mothers in Treatment

This paper takes a cognitive developmental perspective in the qualitative analysis of 9 interviews of women who were sexually abused as children and whose children were also sexually abused. It discusses ways in which the development of cognitive self-understanding can by stymied by childhood sexual abuse and how this, in turn, can affect a woman's ability to parent her children and take full advantage of psychotherapy. It studies the recovery process that participants describe at various stages of a social cognitive developmental model of self-understanding. Finally, it promotes the use of a cognitive developmental perspective in clinical work and offers suggestions for counselors addressing issues of childhood sexual victimization.