Relationships between digit ratio 2D:4D and self-reported aggression and risk taking in an online study

2D:4D, the length ratio of the second to the fourth digit, is a putative measure of prenatal testosterone, which may have effects on aggression and risk taking. Participants in a German online study (>1000 females, >1200 males) submitted their self-measured digit lengths and self-report measures on verbal and physical aggression and risk taking. For males, left-hand 2D:4D and verbal aggression correlated significantly (r = −.10, after correction for age and reduced reliability in self-measured 2D:4D), with other relationships being similar but non-significant. For females, no relationships between aggression and 2D:4D were found. Risk taking and right-hand 2D:4D correlated significantly in women (r = −.10, after correction for age and reduced reliability in self-measured 2D:4D); similar, but statistically non-significant, relationships were found in men. The result corroborates an emerging view that 2D:4D is negatively related to aggression in males and that 2D:4D is negatively related to risk taking. This tentatively points to effects of prenatal testosterone on these characteristics.     

The 2nd to 4th digit ratio (2D:4D) and eating disorder diagnosis in women

Eating disorders are more common in females than in males and are believed to be caused, in part, by biological and hormonal factors. Digit ratio or 2D:4D (the ratio of the 2nd to the 4th digit) is considered to be a proxy for prenatal testosterone (PT) and prenatal oestrogen (PE) exposure. However, how 2D:4D may be related to type of eating pathology is unknown. The relationship between 2D:4D and eating disorder diagnosis was investigated in recovered and currently eating disordered (n = 31) and control (n = 99) women. Mean 2D:4D ratio was significantly lower (indicating higher levels of PT and lower levels of PE) in anorexic (AN) compared to bulimic (BN) women, with controls intermediary. In eating disordered women, 2D:4D was positively and significantly related to current weight, lowest weight and current BMI, with strongest associations for right 2D:4D. Among women, low 2D:4D is related to AN and high 2D:4D to BN, suggesting a differential causal influence of prenatal sex hormones on later eating pathology.     

Brief Sensation Seeking Scale for Chinese – Cultural adaptation and psychometric assessment

International behavioral research requires instruments that are not culturally-biased to assess sensation seeking. In this study we described a culturally adapted version of the Brief Sensation Seeking Scale for Chinese (BSSS-C) and its psychometric characteristics. The adapted scale was assessed using an adult sample (n = 238) with diverse educational and residential backgrounds. The BSSS-C (Cronbach alpha = 0.90) was correlated with the original Brief Sensation Seeking Scale (r = 0.85, p < 0.01) and fitted the four-factor model well (CFI = 0.98, SRMR = 0.03). The scale scores significantly predicted intention to and actual engagement in a number of health risk behaviors, including alcohol consumption, cigarette smoking, and sexual risk behaviors. In conclusion, the BSSS-C has adequate reliability and validity, supporting its utility in China and potential in other developing countries.     

Instrumental and disinhibited financial risk taking: Personality and behavioural correlates

Risk taking, including that within the financial domain, is often considered to represent a unidimensional personality trait. This paper considers the relatively unexplored construct of instrumental financial risk taking: a class of behaviours that while inherently risky, are entered into with a greater degree of consideration than more impulsive or disinhibited forms of risk taking. Participants (N = 1043) completed a novel questionnaire assessing instrumental and disinhibited financial risk taking as part of a battery including measures of: sensation-seeking, impulsivity, psychopathic personality traits and real life financial outcomes. Correlations revealed a divergent pattern of relationships supporting the utility of characterising these different forms of financial risk. Scores on the novel instrument are shown to explain more than 10% of the variance in the use of riskier, more productive savings products, over and above the influence of demographics and financial status.     

The effect of prenatal androgen exposure on the development of neural reactivity systems: A study of the HEXACO Personality Inventory

The ratio of the lengths of the second and fourth digits of hands (2D:4D) seems to vary as a function of systematic differences in prenatal androgen exposure (Hönekopp & Watson, 2010). The 2D:4D ratio has been shown to be related to a variety of personality attributes. This study predicted that 2D:4D would covary with scores on the emotionality dimension of the six-facet HEXACO personality assessment, due to emotionality’s relationship with neural reactivity systems controlled by the amygdala (Hines, Allen, & Gorski, 1992), but that 2D:4D would relate to no other facet. Consistent with hypotheses, data showed that men had smaller ratios than women on both the right, t(405) = 2.84, p < .05, d = .28, and left hands, t(405) = 4.51, p < .05, d = .45, and the relationship between 2D:4D and emotionality was outside of sampling error of zero, r = .18, p < .001. Additionally, 2D:4D was unrelated to the remaining HEXACO facets. Findings suggest that prenatal testosterone exposure has an organizing effect on personality traits.     

Women’s physical attractiveness and short-term mating strategies

The current study examined the relationship between women’s physical attractiveness – as rated by themselves and a set of third-party raters – and their mating strategy and sexual experience. Male (N = 105) and female (N = 113) undergraduates rated the attractiveness of face and body photographs of 93 female undergraduates. Attractiveness ratings – particularly bodily attractiveness ratings – were significantly related to women’s mating psychology and behavior. More attractive women reported more sexual experience and a less restricted sociosexual orientation. In addition, some traits better predicted women’s perception of their overall attractiveness, and this pattern was further linked to mating strategy: more sociosexually unrestricted women showed a stronger relationship between bodily traits (i.e., body mass index) and overall attractiveness than less sociosexually unrestricted women. Discussion focuses on the findings that a woman’s mating strategy is linked to both her self-perceived and objective measures of attractiveness, particularly bodily attractiveness.     

Attachment style and sexual permissiveness: The moderating role of gender

An individual difference variable that has been found to predict variation in young adults’ sexual attitudes and behaviors is attachment orientation. Although it has been argued that the association between attachment orientation and sexuality may differ for males and females, only a few studies have explored this possibility, and the results have been inconsistent. With data collected from a large sample (N = 4246) of college students at a U.S. Midwestern University, it was examined how men and women with different attachment styles may vary in sociosexuality and attitudes toward casual sex. This study found evidence that among men, and as hypothesized, a dismissive-avoidant attachment orientation was associated with higher scores on Simpson and Gangestad’s (1991) Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (sociosexuality) and on a measure of approval of sex in casual dating relationships. Among women, however, there was no support found for the hypothesis that an anxious-preoccupied attachment style was associated with greater sexual permissiveness or with approval of casual sex. As hypothesized, however, securely attached women had a lower score on sociosexuality than did women with other attachment styles.     

The distressed (Type D) and Five-Factor Models of personality in young,healthy adults and their association with emotional inhibition and distress

The distressed (Type D) personality (the combination of negative affectivity and social inhibition traits) has been associated with adverse health outcomes. This study investigated the validity of the Type D construct against the Five-Factor Model (FFM) of personality, and its association with emotional control and distress. In total 498 university students (mean age 28.9 ± 8.4 years) completed the Type D scale (DS14), and measurements for the FFM of personality, emotional control, anxiety, depression and stress. The construct validity of the Icelandic DS14 was confirmed. The Type D components negative affectivity and social inhibition were strongly associated with neuroticism and extraversion of the FFM (r = 0.82 and r = −0.67, respectively). Negative affectivity also correlated with rehearsal/rumination (r = 0.58) and social inhibition with emotional inhibition (r = 0.54), indicative of emotional control. Type D personality (40% of sample) was associated with higher levels of anxiety, depression and stress. The Type D personality components were associated with the FFM of personality, emotional control and emotional distress. Importantly, social and emotional inhibition were closely related, providing novel information about the presence of emotional inhibition within the social inhibition trait.     

Assaultive violence and the risk of posttraumatic stress disorder following a subsequent trauma

Breslau, Peterson, and Shultz (2008) reported that prior trauma alone, in the absence of PTSD, did not predict an increased PTSD risk, relative to no prior trauma. Only prior trauma that resulted in PTSD predicted an increased PTSD risk following a subsequent trauma. Recently, Cougle, Resnick, and Kilpatrick (2009) proposed that the effect of prior trauma might vary by type of prior trauma, a possibility not considered in Breslau et al. They report that childhood sexual or physical assault, in the absence of PTSD, increased the PTSD risk following a subsequent trauma. This report examines the PTSD effects of prior assaultive violence, using data from Breslau et al. (1998). The study assessed PTSD in relation to up to three events. Analysis was performed on the subset with PTSD assessment for two distinct events, the earliest trauma and a subsequent trauma (n = 967), using as reference persons with no prior trauma (n = 972). Neither prior assaultive violence nor other prior traumas, in the absence of PTSD, influenced the subsequent risk of PTSD. In contrast, prior PTSD increased considerably the PTSD risk of a subsequent trauma. The limitations in Cougle et al. (2009) and in this study and future research directions are discussed.     

Digit ratio (2D:4D), academic performance in computer science and computer-related anxiety

Being able to use information communication technology (ICT) effectively has become an essential element of participation within an increasingly digital culture. However, there are differences in participation within this digital culture. Prenatal testosterone exposure is thought to influence the development of numeric capabilities and relate to levels of anxiety, both of which contribute towards engagement with ICT. This study examined whether an index of prenatal exposure to testosterone, digit ratio (2D:4D), is related to successful involvement within a computer-technology context - performance in a Java programming course. Three studies (N = 73,75,65) identified a consistent negative correlation between 2D:4D digit ratio and attainment (r ≈ −0.2). A fourth study (N = 119) found that 2D:4D digit ratio positively correlated with two indices of computer-related anxieties, as well as anxiety sensitivity (r = 0.32/0.51). These results suggest that males and females who have been exposed to higher levels of testosterone within the womb perform better upon academic assessments of Java-related programming ability within computer science education, and have lower levels of computer-related anxieties outside computer science education. Thus, the 2D:4D index of prenatal testosterone exposure correlated with the two factors that directly impact upon ICT engagement, which is increasingly essential to effectively participate within educational and occupational environments.     

The associations of the Five Factor Model of personality with inflammatory biomarkers: A four-year prospective study

This study evaluated the associations of the Five Factor Model of personality with two inflammation biomarkers, C-reactive protein and fibrinogen, and the possible moderating effects of common health-related behaviors (physical activity and smoking) concurrently and over four years, while adjusting for socio-demographic and health status. Participants were individuals who underwent a health examination at two points of time, T1 (n = 1709) and T2 (n = 923), about four years apart. Regression analyses uncovered positive associations between Neuroticism and Extraversion with two inflammatory biomarkers at baseline (T1) and over time (T2) and increases in their levels over time. Additionally, a synergistic interaction of neuroticism and physical inactivity was associated with higher levels of inflammation biomarkers at both time periods. Openness was negatively associated with inflammation biomarkers at T1 and T2, but not with changes in their levels. No significant associations were found for Agreeableness and Conscientiousness. The results suggest that personality traits might be involved in the inflammatory process both concurrently and over time, and thus indicate a possible mechanism by which personality traits might influence health, especially cardiovascular disease risk.     

Perceived threat of infectious disease and its implications for sexual attitudes

A study (n = 411) investigated the relationship between chronic individual differences in germ aversion and sociosexual attitudes (short-term mating orientation, long-term mating orientation, and anticipated future sexual promiscuity), and also tested whether the magnitudes of these relations differ depending on the temporary perceptual salience of disease threat. Results revealed person-by-situation interactions. When the threat of disease was temporarily salient, germ aversion correlated negatively with short-term mating orientation and with future sexual promiscuity, and correlated positively with long-term mating orientation; these effects were either weaker or nonexistent under control conditions. These effects emerged most clearly among women.     

Alcohol use, expectancies, and sexual sensation seeking as correlates of HIV risk behavior in heterosexual young adults.

Most theoretical models of HIV risk behavior have not considered the role of personality factors, and few studies have examined mechanisms accounting for dispositional influences on sexual risk taking. This study elaborated on a conceptual model emphasizing sexual sensation seeking, alcohol expectancies, and drinking before sex as key predictors of HIV risk (S. C. Kalichman, L. Tannenbaum, & D. Nachimson, 1998). Multiple groups structural equation modeling was used to determine whether gender moderated relationships among these variables in a sample of 611 heterosexual, young adult drinkers (49% women, 76% Caucasian, mean age = 25 years). The model provided an excellent fit to the data, and gender differences were not substantiated. Sexual sensation seeking predicted HIV risk directly as well as indirectly via sex-related alcohol expectancies and drinking in sexual contexts. Findings suggest that expectancies and drinking before sex represent proximal mechanisms through which dispositional factors influence sexual risk outcomes. Moreover, these relationships appear to be similar in men and women. Interventions could benefit from targeting alcohol expectancies and drinking before sex in individuals with a dispositional tendency toward sexual risk taking.     

Adolescents with high mental toughness adapt better to perceived stress: A longitudinal study with Swiss vocational students

A mindset of mental toughness enables an individual to cope successfully with the pressures and demands of life. This 10-month study prospectively examined the association between mental toughness and stress resilience in 865 students (M = 17.86 years, 42.7% girls) from two vocational schools. Within each school, separate cluster analyses identified groups with different profiles of risk (assessed with perceived stress) and adaptation (operationalized with depressive symptoms and life satisfaction). Four clusters emerged characterizing students with well-adjusted (low risk, good adaptation), maladjusted (elevated risk, bad adaptation), deteriorated (low initial risk, worsening adaptation) and resilient profiles (elevated initial risk, improving adaptation). The latter two clusters reported similar levels of mental toughness at baseline, but resilient adolescents scored significantly higher on mental toughness at follow-up. After controlling for possible confounds, baseline toughness levels predicted depressive symptoms and life satisfaction over time. This study shows that mental toughness operates as a stress resilience resource. Mental toughness is, therefore a topic of interest for health specialists working with adolescent populations.     

Factor structure of the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale for Children (BPRS-C) among Hospital Patients and Community Clients

The factor structure, reliability and concurrent validity of the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale for Children (BPRS-C) was examined. The BPRS-C was designed to measure child psychopathology with seven scales consisting of three items each. Two large samples of intake assessments at admission to the public mental health system of state psychiatric hospitals (n = 6712) and community mental health centers (n = 21,459) for children aged 3–17 were examined. In both samples exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis found seven factors that generally supported the BPRS-C seven scale structure. Reliability as measured by internal consistency was acceptable with an average alpha of .72 (SD = .09). Mean scale scores across diagnoses and concurrent correlations with the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) were consistent with expectations.     

Comparison of longitudinal biomechanical adaptation to shoe degradation between the dominant and non-dominant legs during running

This study compared the biomechanical adaptation to running shoe degradation between the dominant (D) and non-dominant (ND) leg. Twenty-four runners performed a pre-test in the laboratory, completed 200 miles of road running in a pair of assigned shoes and then returned for a post-test. Kinetic and kinematic data of running in new and worn shoes were collected. Repeated measures ANOVA (Shoe × Leg) were used to analyze temporal, kinetic and kinematic variables (α = .05). A symmetry index (SI) was calculated for the temporal and kinetic variables and paired t-tests were used to compare the SI between shoe conditions. Stance time increased by approximately 7 ms in worn shoes (p = .027). Bilateral differences in the kinematic change (Shoe × Leg interaction) were seen in the torso (p < .05), knee (p < .05), marginally at the hip (p < .10) but not the ankle. No difference in kinetic variables or SI was observed. When running in worn shoes, the torso displayed reduced forward lean for both sides and to a greater extent during the D leg strike. The D hip and knee showed a more extended position for the worn shoe condition while an increased flexion was observed in the ND leg. Most of the kinematic differences observed were small and within the intra-subject variability measured during the same session. Future studies may consider performing a three-dimensional analysis at a higher sample rate and further explore whether asymmetrical adaptation is related to running injuries.     

Body appreciation,sexual relationship status,and protective sexual behaviors in women

The relationship between body appreciation and sexual risk reduction behavior in women is under-explored. This cross-sectional study examined the relationships between body appreciation, male condom use, and sexually transmitted infection (STI) testing among a community-based sample of women (n = 285). Logistic regression results revealed that after controlling for age, BMI, and sexual orientation, having more than one sexual partner moderated body appreciation and current male condom use (OR = 4.21, p < .01, CI = 1.510–11.726). Body appreciation was not a significant predictor of STI testing in the previous 12 months. This suggests that women with higher body appreciation may be more likely to engage in some protective sexual health behaviors. Interventions that seek to improve body appreciation instead of body size change such as weight loss or gain may encourage certain protective sexual behaviors in women.     

Gender differences in rumination: A meta-analysis

Starting in adolescence and continuing through adulthood, women are twice as likely as men to experience depression. According to the response styles theory (RST), gender differences in depression result, in part, from women’s tendency to ruminate more than men. A meta-analysis was performed to evaluate gender differences in rumination in adults (k = 59; N = 14,321); additionally, an analysis of subtypes of rumination – brooding and reflection – was conducted (k = 23). Fixed effects analyses indicated that women scored higher than men in rumination (d = .24, p < .01, SEd = .02), brooding (d = .19, p < .01, SEd = .03) and reflection (d = .17, p < .01, SEd = .03); there was no evidence of heterogeneity or publication bias across studies for these effect sizes. Although statistically significant, the effect sizes for gender differences in rumination were small in magnitude. Results are discussed with respect to the RST and gender differences in depression.     

Can we reduce eating disorder risk factors in female college athletes? A randomized exploratory investigation of two peer-led interventions

Female athletes are at least as at risk as other women for eating disorders (EDs) and at risk for the female athlete triad (i.e., inadequate energy availability, menstrual disorders, and osteoporosis). This study investigated whether two evidence-based programs appear promising for future study if modified to address the unique needs of female athletes. Athletes were randomly assigned to athlete-modified dissonance prevention or healthy weight intervention (AM-HWI). ED risk factors were assessed pre/post-treatment, and 6-week and 1-year follow-up. Results (analyzed sample, N = 157) indicated that both interventions reduced thin-ideal internalization, dietary restraint, bulimic pathology, shape and weight concern, and negative affect at 6 weeks, and bulimic pathology, shape concern, and negative affect at 1 year. Unexpectedly we observed an increase in students spontaneously seeking medical consultation for the triad. Qualitative results suggested that AM-HWI may be more preferred by athletes.     

Are Transgender Persons at Higher Risk for HIV Than Other Sexual Minorities? A Comparison of HIV Prevalence and Risks

SUMMARY

Recent studies have shown that transgender people are at high risk for HIV. Few studies, however, have directly compared the HIV risks and sexual health of transgender persons with that of other sexual minority populations. This study used baseline data of intervention studies targeting transgender persons, men who have sex with men, and women who have sex with women and men to compare their HIV risk behavior and sexual health. No significant differences were found between transgender persons and nontransgender men or women in consistent condom use or attitudes toward condom use. Transgender persons were less likely to have multiple partners and more likely to be monogamous than men who have sex with men; no differences were found between transgender persons and the women in this respect. When combining data on condom use, monogamy, and multiple partners, transgender persons did not differ from either nontransgender group in their overall risk for HIV. Transgender persons were less likely than the men or the women to have been tested for HIV. With regard to HIV prevalence, 17% of the men compared to only one transgender person and none of the women reported being HIV-positive. Transgender persons were also less likely than men who have sex with men to use drugs; no differences were found in the use of alcohol. However, with regard to mental health, transgender persons were more likely than the men to have experienced depression and more likely than men or women to have considered or attempted suicide. Finally, transgender persons reported the lowest levels of support from family and peers. Thus, in our sample, transgender persons appear to be at lower risk for HIV but at higher risk for mental health concerns than men who have sex with men. Remarkably few differences were found between transgender persons and women who have sex with women and men-a finding which might reflect the impact of social stigma on sexual health and have implications for the design of future HIV/STI prevention efforts.