Suicide and violence risk in law enforcement: practical guidelines for risk assessment, prevention, and intervention.

Research and anecdotal reports indicate that suicide and violence risk may be higher among members of law enforcement than those in other occupational categories. This article examines the phenomenon of suicide and violence risk within this population, and law enforcement cultural variables that may contribute to elevated risk. Suicide and violence risk factors and clues unique to law enforcement are described, as are intervention approaches which may be helpful to managing and reducing risk.     

The metaphor police: A case study of the role of metaphor in explanation

While many scholars have pointed to the role of metaphor in explanation, relatively little experimental research has examined whether and how metaphors are used and understood in everyday explanatory discourse. Across 3 experiments, we investigated the nature and function of metaphor in explanation by drawing on a real-world example where the terms guardian and warrior were used to metaphorically explain the role of police officers. We found, first, that the associations participants brought to mind for these concepts differed depending on whether they had previously answered questions about law enforcement (e.g., associations for warrior emphasized aggression and violence rather than strength and bravery when participants had previously answered questions about policing). Second, people were almost evenly split in their judgment of which metaphor was more appropriate to explain the role of law enforcement; this preference was highly predictive of beliefs related to policing and the criminal justice system. Third, and most important, using these metaphors to explain the job of policing causally influenced attitudes toward law enforcement in a metaphor-congruent manner (i.e., exposure to the guardian metaphor led to more positive attitudes), a finding that could not be accounted for by basic lexical priming. These studies complement existing work that has identified metaphor as a mechanism for representing abstract concepts, but also highlight the communicative and explanatory, rather than representational, functions of metaphor by showing that metaphors can encapsulate and convey an array of structured attitudes and beliefs.     

Implicit Bias and Policing

In a time when racial prejudice is generally taboo and decision makers, including law enforcement officials, strenuously disavow the use of group‐based stereotypes to make judgments that affect others, one might expect discriminatory outcomes to be unusual. However, research repeatedly indicates that discrimination is pervasive across many domains, and specifically in policing. A major cause of biased policing is likely the implicit biases that operate outside of conscious awareness and control but nevertheless influence our behaviors. Implicit biases (e.g., stereotypes linking Blacks with crime or with related traits like violence or hostility) influence judgments through processes of misattribution and disambiguation. Although psychological science gives us good insight into the causes of racially biased policing, there are as yet no known, straightforward, effective intervention programs. Nevertheless, there are several strands of research that represent promising avenues for further exploration, including intergroup contact, exposure to counter‐stereotypic exemplars, and stereotype negation. Meanwhile, many police departments are adjusting their policies, trainings, and procedures to try to address biased policing and community complaints. Several common themes among those changes include banning racial profiling, collecting data, training officers, reducing discretion, and adopting new technologies. These adjustments are more likely to be successful if they incorporate the understanding that biased policing occurs in the absence of explicitly “racist” thoughts because of well‐documented, pernicious stereotypes that operate largely outside of conscious awareness and control.     

Variability in the collective behaviour of England fans at Euro2004: ‘Hooliganism’, public order policing and social change

This paper presents an analysis of collective behaviour among England football fans attending the European football championships in Portugal (Euro2004). Given this category's violent reputation, a key goal was to explore the processes underlying their apparent shift away from conflict in match cities. Drawing from the elaborated social identity model of crowd behaviour (ESIM) data were obtained using semi‐structured observations and interviews before, during and after the tournament. Qualitative analysis centres first on three key incidents in match cities where the potential for violence was undermined either by ‘self‐policing’ among England fans, or by appropriately targeted police intervention. These are contrasted with two ‘riots’ involving England fans that occurred in Algarve during the tournament. A phenomenological analysis of England fans' accounts suggests that the contexts created by different forms of policing helped bring to the fore different understandings of what constituted proper and possible behaviour among England fans, and that these changes in identity content underpinned shifts toward and away from collective conflict. The implications of this analysis for the ESIM, understanding public order policing, social change and social conflict are discussed. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sociodemographic Differences in Humility: The Role of Social Relations

This study examines whether humility is associated with gender, education, and racial/ethnic group. We also investigate how social relations mediate these links across the life course. Data are from the Detroit Community Study, which focused on three prominent groups in the area: Arab Americans, African Americans, and White Americans (N=907). Findings indicate that Arab Americans and African Americans report greater humility than Whites. Further, social relations partially mediate this association, but only among older Arab Americans. Findings are discussed within a developmental science perspective to consider the relational aspects of the individual and context over the life course.     

Help-Seeking and Internal Obstacles to Receiving Support in the Wake of Community Violence Exposure: The Case of Arab and Jewish Adolescents in Israel

We examined help-seeking and internal obstacles to receiving psychosocial support in the wake of community violence exposure in a sample of 1,835 Arab and Jewish adolescents living in Israel. Paper and pencil surveys conducted in schools examined adolescents’ personal victimization and witnessing of community violence in the past year, and then queried adolescents about their help-seeking after violence exposure. Our findings indicated widespread exposure to community violence, particularly for the Arab respondents. Only one in three Arab and one in four Jewish adolescents reported seeking help from anyone to cope with such experiences following their violence exposure, and only rarely did adolescents seek help from a mental health professional (one in twenty for Jewish and one in nine for Arab adolescents). Adolescents across both samples indicated a variety of internal obstacles that might explain their lack of seeking help to cope with violence exposure, including cognitive minimization of the event, deliberately maintaining the secrecy of the event, wishing to maintain their autonomy, and failing to believe in the efficacy of seeking help from others. Such findings shed light on the difficult challenges to providing professional support to adolescents when they are exposed to community violence, and suggest that such challenges, while varying to a degree across cultures, are also prevalent across cultures.     

The Visibility and Invisibility of Arab Americans and Implications for Psychological Treatment: A Comment on Cho

The following is a commentary on “Ethical Considerations for Psychologists Providing Treatment for Arab Americans” (Cho, this issue). Cho (this issue) brings to light important issues on providing ethical treatment with the Arab American community. However, there is currently no formal mechanism to identify the number of Americans of Arab descent, thus impacting the ability of researchers to study psychological treatment with Arab Americans. In addition, many Arab Americans are refugees with exposure to trauma, highlighting the need for understanding the role of culture in trauma when working with this community. Implications of these issues pertinent to the Arab American community and the need for psychologists to act in advocacy roles are discussed.     

Law Enforcement Officers: The Consequences of Exposure to Violence

Law enforcement officers are exposed to victims of violence, are themselves victims of violence, and, at times, use violence against offenders. The authors discuss methods that officers have developed for handling violent situations and explore some of the effects this exposure to violence has on both their mental and physical health. Suggestions are developed for counselors working with law enforcement personnel and others who need to cope with the direct and indirect effects of violence.     

Masculinity,Femininity, and Hispanic Professional Women's Self-Esteem and Self-Acceptance

The literature suggests that whereas women experience unique challenges with self-esteem, Hispanic professional women experience an additional challenge of balancing majority culture values with a more family-oriented ethnic identity. This study investigated differences in self-esteem, self-acceptance, masculinity, femininity, and locus of control among Hispanic professional women, non-Hispanic professionals, scientists, college students, clients, and victims of domestic violence. Masculinity scores were significantly higher for Hispanic professional women, and self-acceptance scores were significantly lower than for other women professionals.     

Legal consequences of dating violence: A critical review and directions for improved behavioral contingencies

As researchers and clinicians seek to better understand, prevent, and address violence in dating relationships among adolescents and young adults, there is also a need to better explore the possible legal consequences for perpetrators of aggression. The purpose of this paper is to review legal involvement in violent intimate relationships, with a specific focus on dating relationships, as these sanctions represent possible punishing consequences for violent perpetration. Punishing consequences of aggression, including legal interventions, could serve to lessen or eliminate violence in the current relationship and also circumvent possible aggression in future relationships. Implications of this review for clinicians, law enforcement, judiciary officials, and prevention programmers addressing dating violence are provided, along with directions for future research.     

Female Offenders in Domestic Violence

SUMMARY

It is well accepted that large numbers of men batter women. Although some data also reveal that women report assaulting men in large numbers, interpretation of the latter data has been fraught with controversy. The present article reports on a sample of women arrested for domestic violence. When questions were asked about frequency of violence initiation, which partner began the overall pattern of violence in the relationship, and the women's reasons for using violence, it was found that about two-thirds of the women were battered and using violence to protect themselves or to retaliate for previous violence against them. Implications of these findings for conceptualizing women's violence as well as for training law enforcement personnel are discussed.     

Social Networks and Forgiveness: The Role of Trust and Efficacy

We examine the link between social network size and forgiveness, as well as mediating effects of self-efficacy and trust. Data are from the Detroit Community Study, which include three racial/ethnic groups: African Americans, Arab Americans, and White Americans (N=907). Results indicated that larger network size is associated with more forgiveness, but is mediated by trust. Patterns varied within racial/ethnic group: among Arab Americans self-efficacy mediated the effect of network size on forgiveness; among African Americans there were no direct or mediating effects; among White Americans an indirect effect of trust on forgiveness was identified. Findings suggest complex associations with forgiveness.     

Arab American Elders: Network Structure,Perceptions of Relationship Quality,and Discrimination

The metropolitan Detroit area is home to the largest concentration of Arab Americans in the United States and continues to receive immigrants from the Middle East. The nature of aging and social relations among this immigrant/ethnic group is a neglected area of study. In this article, I compared immigrant and U.S.-born Arab American elders in metropolitan Detroit with regard to social integration, relationship quality, and perceptions of discrimination. Using analyses of variance, I compared social network characteristics, revealing that immigrants report smaller, denser networks. I also evaluated quality of social relations; results demonstrate that immigrants are less likely to report that their relationships with their child and best friend are good but more likely to perceive the ability to confide in their spouse. U.S.-born elders are more likely to report that their spouse gets on their nerves and makes too many demands as well as to report experiencing ethnic discrimination. Findings highlight diversity among elder Arabs in America, documenting vulnerabilities as well as strengths in social relationships.     

Shades of American Identity: Implicit Relations between Ethnic and National Identities

The issue of ethnic diversity and national identity in an immigrant nation such as the USA is a recurrent topic of debate. We review and integrate research examining the extent to which the American identity is implicitly granted or denied to members of different ethnic groups. Consistently, European Americans are implicitly conceived of as being more American than African, Asian, Latino, and even Native Americans. This implicit American = White effect emerges when explicit knowledge or perceptions point in the opposite direction. The propensity to deny the American identity to members of ethnic minorities is particularly pronounced when targets (individuals or groups) are construed through the lenses of ethnic identities. Implicit ethnic–national associations fluctuate as a function of perceivers' ethnic identity and political orientation, but also contextual or situational factors. The tendency to equate being American with being White accounts for the strength of national identification (among European Americans) and behavioral responses including hiring recommendations and voting intentions. The robust propensity to deny the American identity to ethnic minority groups reflects an exclusionary national identity.     

Ethical Considerations for Psychologists Providing Treatment to Arab Americans

Given the recent increase in hate crimes against Arab Americans, there are growing concerns over the mental health needs of Arab Americans and a pressing need for psychologists’ competence in treating this group. Although there are several clinical guidelines for other health care professions, there remains a paucity of information on the ethical issues that may arise for psychologists treating this Arab Americans. This article briefly provides background information on Arab Americans, highlights elements of Arab culture that might influence psychological treatment, discusses ethical issues that might arise when psychologists provide services to Arab Americans, and provides recommendations to address these issues.     

Exposure to domestic violence and identity development among adolescent university students in South Africa

This study examined the relationship between exposure to domestic violence and identity development in a sample of 108 undergraduate students with an average age of 18.7 yr. from University of Limpopo in South Africa. There were more women (n = 64; 58.7%) in the study than men (n = 45; 41.3%). Participants were classified into high and low domestic violence exposure groups on the basis of a median split in physical violence scores from the Child Exposure to Domestic Violence Scale (CEDV). Exposure was then compared with identity development as measured by the Ochse and Plug Erikson scale. The results indicated a significant mean difference between the two groups on identity development. Furthermore, exposure to domestic violence was significantly associated with lower scores for identity development as represented by subscales measuring trust, autonomy, initiative and other Eriksonian constructs. Implications and limitations of the study are discussed.     

Integrating research and practice in federal law enforcement: Secret Service applications of behavioral science expertise to protect the President

This paper discusses specific behavioral research needs by law enforcement and justice systems to guide forensic decision-making in areas of targeted violence. Continuing incidents of stalking, workplace violence, and threats to public figures underscore the importance of developing empirically based risk assessment and intervention strategies. Reviewing briefly the relevant literatures in these areas, this paper describes deficits in these literatures and the absence of a model for integrating research and practice in applied settings. The U.S. Secret Service Behavioral Research Program is explored as one example of how behavioral science expertise may be integrated with law enforcement responsibilities. Considerations associated with building behavioral research capacities in applied settings are examined in the context of differences in professional orientation, values, and access to information. Specific research directions to improve understanding of targeted violence are recommended along with suggestions for ways in which the psychology-law field may facilitate integration of research into practice. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Predictors of patrol officer interest in cybercrime training and investigation in selected United States police departments

Abstract Cybercrime has created substantial challenges for law enforcement, particularly at the local level. Most scholars and police administrators believe that patrol officers need to become more effective first responders to cybercrime calls. The evidence illustrates, however, that many patrol officers are neither adequately prepared nor strongly interested in taking an active role in addressing cybercrime at the local level. This study, therefore, examined the factors that predicted patrol officer interest in cybercrime training and investigations in two southeastern U.S. cities. The study specifically examined the relationship between demographics, cybercrime exposure, computer training, computer proficiency, Internet and cybercrime perceptions, and views on policing cybercrime with officer interest in cybercrime investigation training and conducting cybercrime investigations in the future. Officer views on policing cybercrime, particularly whether they valued cybercrime investigations and believed that cybercrime would dramatically change policing, along with their computer skills, were the strongest predictors of interest in cybercrime efforts. Officers who had received previous computer training were less interested in additional training and conducting investigations. These findings support the argument that more command and departmental meetings focusing on the value of investigating these types of crime need to be held in order to increase officer interest.     

Vilification of the “batterer”: How blame shapes domestic violence policy and interventions

This article explores ways in which the vilification of the “batterer” — the popular, policy, and “scientific” legitimization of the dismissive and degrading categorization of perpetrators — has influenced research, policy, and intervention in the field of domestic violence. The historical, political, ideological, legal, and theoretical bases of this process are reviewed. Factors behind the convergence of feminist and law enforcement perspectives are discussed. Current policies and practices are described as being unnecessarily constrained and unresponsive to a wide range of families and relationships. Vilification exerts its impact on policy through a rhetoric of blame, portraying perpetrators as undeserving of a broader range of interventions and services.