错误记忆中的新领域--想象膨胀

文章就近年来错误记忆研究中的新领域——“想象膨胀”进行介绍。“想象膨胀”是一种源自生活的错误记忆现象,它是指通过想象能提高一个人确信某一未发生事件发生过的程度。本文对想象膨胀研究范式、现状、相关理论及其研究意义进行一一介绍,为进一步的研究提供参考。     

基于日常生活的记忆研究进展

近年来,心理学研究显示出了对生态效度的重视。生态效度强调尽可能地使实验情境中所观察到的差异接近现实生活中的发展变化。生态效度的提出,使人们认识到研究情景、研究条件对研究结果的概括和推广的重要意义。也正是在这种趋势的感召下,基于日常生活的记忆研究开始蓬勃发展起来。它突破了以往记忆实验主要针对无意义材料进行脱离实际的研究的局面,以日常生活为基础和前提,研究的课题从日常生活中提炼,实验室研究强调模拟日常生活情境,研究目的更是为了解决日常生活中的问题和深入对记忆现象的理解。     

正确记忆与错误记忆中的感觉通道效应研究

本研究采用DRM范式,考察了正确记忆与错误记忆中的感觉通道效应,以及干扰因素对正确记忆与错误记忆的影响.结果表明:(1)无论是正确记忆还是错误记忆,视觉呈现优于听觉呈现;(2)三种呈现通道下.对关键诱饵的错误记忆差异不显著;(3)干扰任务下的再认成绩比无干扰任务下的再认成绩好.结合实验结果,本文还就不同通道下错误记忆的加工机制问题以及正确记忆与错误记忆的关系问题进行了初探.     

DRM范式中错误记忆的年龄差异及其机制

研究旨在考察老年人错误记忆现象及内在原因,并检验模糊痕迹理论对错误记忆年老化机制的解释。以经典DRM范式为研究起点,对三组被试（年轻人35名、低龄老人28名、高龄老人34名）的记忆成绩进行比较,利用联合再认范式及多项式树型建模的统计手段,分别从现象学和认知加工机制的角度检验错误记忆的年龄差异是否符合模糊痕迹理论的预期。结果发现:（1）正确记忆与错误记忆均存在显著的年龄差异,而这两种记忆在不同年龄阶段的老年人中呈现出不同的增龄效应模式：正确记忆随年龄的增长呈不断下降的趋势,而错误记忆水平呈现倒U型发展趋势,即低龄老年组的虚报率显著高于年轻组和高龄老年组;（2）虚报率的年龄差异主要集中在未学习过但与学习词列有强语义相关的刺激（类型记为R）反应上。对R型刺激的反应模式进行分析发现,低龄老年人相比年轻人成功提取字面痕迹的概率存在显著下降,而提取要点痕迹的概率保持相对稳定;高龄老年人成功提取要点痕迹的概率相比低龄老年人显著下降。本研究的结果支持了模糊痕迹理论对个体记忆一般年老化特点的预期及解释。     

重复学习对错误记忆通道效应的影响

本研究采用DRM范式以80名大学生为被试对错误记忆的通道效应进行了研究.实验采用三因素混合设计,运用信号检测论等方法探讨了重复学习对不同通道错误再认的影响.结果发现:1)汉语词表具有与英文词表不同的通道效应,表现为视觉学习的错误再认高于听觉学习;2)重复学习对视觉学习与听觉学习的错误再认产生分离性影响,即重复学习降低了视觉学习的错误再认,却提高了听觉学习的错误再认;3)信号检测论的分析表明:听觉学习在重复学习后对关键诱词的错误再认的增加是听觉学习对要义信息日益增加的敏感性连同较为宽松的提取标准协同起作用的结果.     

错误记忆研究范式评介

文章概括评介了当前错误记忆研究的几种主要范式及其各自可能的认知机制。联想研究范式(包括集中联想研究范式与类别联想研究范式)和无意识知觉范式描述了人们对单词的错误记忆,而误导信息干扰范式和KK研究范式则描述了人们对持续事件的错误记忆。这两类不同的研究范式证实了可能存在不同类型的错误记忆,且可能具有不同的认知加工机制。它们都从一定层面上揭示了错误记忆现象的本质和特征,并为人们进行更深入的研究提供了有效的方法。     

注意分散对老年人错误记忆的影响

该实验以经典DRM词表为实验材料,采用简化后的联合范式来探讨注意资源对老年人错误记忆的影响。比较老年人和青年人在注意集中和注意分散条件下的错误记忆成绩。结果发现,老年组的虚报率显著高于青年人的虚报率,特别在注意集中条件下。更重要的是,老年人在注意集中条件下的虚报率与青年人在注意分散条件下的虚报率相比无显著差异,同时两种条件下的判断标准差异也不显著。结果显示,老年人相比于青年人有更多错误记忆的原因可能是注意资源的不足。     

DRM范式下心境一致性错误记忆的认知机制

本研究以自编情绪DRM词表为实验材料, 用音乐诱发正常大学生被试正性、负性和中性心境, 探讨在被试处于某种心境下时是否产生心境一致性错误记忆现象、预警能否减少心境一致性错误记忆的发生。结果表明, 正性关键诱饵在正性心境下的错误再认率显著高于中性和负性心境, 负性关键诱饵在负性心境下的错误再认率显著高于中性和正性心境, 说明正常被试也会产生心境一致性错误记忆; 预警和无预警条件下被试对关键诱饵和心境一致性关键诱饵的错误再认率无显著差异, 说明外显的预警提示并不能消除部分由无意识产生的错误记忆和心境一致性错误记忆。研究结果支持记忆的扩散激活理论和情感的联想网络理论。     

暗示条件下的错误记忆研究概述

心理学家通过采用事后提供误导信息的方法以及临床治疗中的催眠、想象等暗示性程序发现的记忆歪曲和记忆移植现象,说明记忆的改变并不局限于对经历的或记得的情节的某方面的修改,它还能创造虚假的自传性事件记忆。     

基于同义关联的句子错误记忆：发展性逆转现象及句式效应

以汉语把字句和被字句为材料,采用学习-再认方式,考察基于同义关联的句子错误记忆及其发展性逆转现象和句式效应。实验1结果发现高二和初二校正后的关键诱饵句错误再认率显著高于小学五年级,把字关键诱饵句校正后的错误再认率显著高于被字句,表明基于同义关联的句子错误记忆存在发展性逆转现象和句式效应。实验2结果发现三个年级关键诱饵句与无关句的错误再认率差异均不显著,表明去除同义关联后,句子错误记忆现象被抑制。结果表明,同义关联能诱发句子错误记忆,且句子错误记忆存在发展性逆转现象和句式效应。     

Self-initiated object-location memory in young and older adults

The present study explored self-initiated object-location memory in ecological contexts, as aspect of memory that is largely absent from the research literature. Young and older adults memorized objects-location associations they selected themselves or object-location associations provided to them, and elaborated on the strategy they used when selecting the locations themselves. Retrieval took place 30 min and 1 month after encoding. The results showed an age-related decline in self-initiated and provided object-location memory. Older adults benefited from self-initiation more than young adults when tested after 30 min, while the benefit was equal when tested after 1 month. Furthermore, elaboration enhanced memory only in older adults, and only after 30 min. Both age groups used deep encoding strategies on the majority of the trials, but their percentage was lower in older adults. Overall, the study demonstrated the processes involved in self-initiated object-location memory, which is an essential part of everyday functioning.     

The mark of adaptive memory in healthy and cognitively impaired older adults and elderly

The survival processing paradigm has recently drawn attention to the functional aspects of memory functioning. The survival effect, characterized by better memory performance when information is processed in a survival context, as compared with a variety of controls, is now well established in healthy populations. The main goal of this study was to test this paradigm in a group of cognitively impaired older adults and elderly; their data were compared to the data obtained in a group of healthy older adults and elderly. Seventeen cognitively impaired and 17 healthy participants performed a typical survival task using a blocked within‐subject design procedure and free recall as the memory test. The healthy older adults and elderly performed better on this memory task as well as on other tests included in a neuropsychological evaluation protocol. Importantly, both groups benefited from survival processing. These results provide further support for the power of survival processing, extending this phenomenon to cognitively impaired aging participants. The data also suggest that the survival effect is not simply a form of deep processing. Potential applied considerations are presented.     

An investigation into the impact of acute stress on encoding in older adults

Acute psychological stress commonly occurs in young and older adults’ lives. Though several studies have examined the influence of stress on how young adults learn new information, the present study is the first to directly examine these effects in older adults. Fifty older adults (M age = 71.9) were subjected to either stress induction or a control task before learning two types of information: a short video and a series of pictures. Twenty-four hours later, they were exposed to misleading information about the video and then completed memory tests for the video and pictures. Heart rate and cortisol measures suggest that a physiological stress response was successfully induced. Though pre-encoding stress had little impact on memory accuracy, stress did influence errors of omission on the cued recall test for the video. Findings are discussed in the context of previous research examining the effects of stress on memory in older adults.     

Self-projection in younger and older adults: a study of episodic memory,prospection, and theory of mind

Self-projection is the ability to orient the self in different places in time and space. Episodic memory, prospection, and theory of mind (ToM) are all cognitive abilities that share an element of self-projection. Previous research has posited that each of these abilities stems from the same neural network. The current study compared performance of cognitively healthy older adults and younger adults on several self-projection tasks to examine the relatedness of these constructs behaviorally. Episodic memory and prospection were measured using an episodic interview task where the participants were asked to remember or imagine events that either had happened in the past or could happen in the future and then gave ratings describing the extent to which they were mentally experiencing the event and from what perspective they viewed it. ToM was measured by asking participants to make judgments regarding the intentions of characters described in stories that involved cognitive, affective, or ironic components. Our results demonstrate that aging influences episodic memory, prospection, and ToM similarly: older adult participants showed declines on each of these measures compared to younger adults. Further, we observed correlations between performance on the measures of episodic memory and prospection as well as between episodic memory and ToM, although no correlation between prospection and ToM was observed after controlling for chronological age. We discuss these results in the light of theories suggesting that each of these abilities is governed by a common brain system.     

Modality effect in false recognition: evidence from Chinese characters

Using the Deese/Roediger‐McDermott (DRM) false memory method, Smith and Hunt ( 1998 ) first reported the modality effect on false memory and showed that false recall from DRM lists was lower following visual study than following auditory study, which led to numerous studies on the mechanism of modality effect on false memory and provided many competing explanations. In the present experiment, the authors tested the modality effect in false recognition by using a blocked presentation condition and a random presentation condition. The present experiment found a modality effect different from the results of the previous research; namely, false recognition was shown to be greater following visual study than following auditory study, especially in the blocked presentation condition rather than in the random presentation condition. The authors argued that this reversed modality effect may be due to different encoding and processing characteristics between Chinese characters and English words. Compared with English words, visual graphemes of critical lures in Chinese lists are likely to be activated and encoded in participants' minds, thus it is more difficult for participants to discriminate later inner graphemes from those items presented in visual modality. Hence visual presentation could lead to more false recognition than auditory presentation in Chinese lists. The results in the present experiment demonstrated that semantic activation occurring during the encoding and retrieve phases played an important role in modality effect in false recognition, and our findings might be explained by the activation‐monitoring account.     

The ironic effect of guessing: increased false memory for mediated lists in younger and older adults

Younger and older adults studied lists of words directly (e.g., creek, water) or indirectly (e.g., beaver, faucet) related to a nonpresented critical lure (CL; e.g., river). Indirect (i.e., mediated) lists presented items that were only related to CLs through nonpresented mediators (i.e., directly related items). Following study, participants completed a condition-specific task, math, a recall test with or without a warning about the CL, or tried to guess the CL. On a final recognition test, warnings (vs. math and recall without warning) decreased false recognition for direct lists, and guessing increased mediated false recognition (an ironic effect of guessing) in both age groups. The observed age-invariance of the ironic effect of guessing suggests that processes involved in mediated false memory are preserved in aging and confirms the effect is largely due to activation in semantic networks during encoding and to the strengthening of these networks during the interpolated tasks.     

Phonological false recognition produced by bottom-up automatic activation in young and older people

ABSTRACT

Two experiments explored a new procedure to implicitly induce phonological false memories in young and older people. On the study tasks, half of the words were formed from half of the letters in the alphabet, whereas the remaining words were formed from all the letters in the alphabet. On the recognition tests, there were three types of non-studied new words: critical lures formed from the same half of the letters as the studied words; distractors formed from the other half of the letters not used, and distractors formed from all the letters in the alphabet. In both experiments, the results showed that, in both young and older people, critical lures produced more false recognitions than distractors composed of all the letters in the alphabet, which, in turn, produced more false alarms than distractors composed of the letters not used during the study. These results support the predictions of the activation/monitoring models, which assume that false memories are partly due to activation spreading from items (semantically or phonologically) related to the critical words.     

Remembering the past and imagining the future: attachment effects on production of episodic details in close relationships

Attachment theories and studies have shown that Internal Working Models (IWMs) can impact autobiographical memory and future-oriented information processing relevant to close relationships. According to the constructive episodic simulation hypothesis (CESH), both remembering the past and imagining the future rely on episodic memory. We hypothesised that one way IWMs may bridge past experiences and future adaptations is via episodic memory. The present study investigated the association between attachment and episodic specificity in attachment-relevant and attachment-irrelevant memory and imagination among young and older adults. We measured the attachment style of 37 young adults and 40 older adults, and then asked them to remember or imagine attachment-relevant and attachment-irrelevant events. Participants’ narratives were coded for internal details (i.e., episodic) and external details (e.g., semantic, repetitions). The results showed that across age group, secure individuals generated more internal details and fewer external details in attachment-relevant tasks compared to attachment-irrelevant tasks; these differences were not observed in insecure individuals. These findings support the CESH and provide a new perspective to understand the function of IWMs.     

不同年龄视觉通道错误记忆的实验研究

两个实验运用DRM研究范式 ,分别以汉字词和彩色图片为材料 ,揭示了青年、中年和老年人都存在基于概念结构的视觉关联性错误记忆以及在自由回忆、再认、抵御犯关联性错误记忆及抵抗外界无关因素干扰等情节长时记忆能力的各个方面随年龄发展变化的不同特点 ,并发现对信息来源的监控评定水平受信息材料性质及年龄因素的影响