Analysis of the affect measurement conundrum in exercise psychology: I. Fundamental issues

Background and purpose: The measurement of affect in the context of exercise is a controversial issue. The purpose of this paper is to provide a critical review of the relevant literature and to outline a conceptual framework that will serve as the basis for subsequent analysis.Methods: Four issues are discussed: (a) the distinctions between emotions, moods, and affect; (b) the strengths and weaknesses of categorical and dimensional models for conceptualizing affective phenomena; (c) the notion of ‘exercise-specific’ affect; and (d) whether measurement should be based on a deductive or an inductive approach.Results and conclusions: Arguments are presented in favor of (a) targeting basic affect as the appropriate object of assessment at the present stage of knowledge development; (b) adopting dimensional models because of their broad and balanced scope; (c) critically reconsidering the notion of ‘exercise-specific’ affect; and (d) using deductive methods for measuring affect.     

Analysis of the affect measurement conundrum in exercise psychology: II. A conceptual and methodological critique of the Exercise-induced Feeling inventory

Background and purpose: The measurement of affect in the context of exercise has become a controversial issue. To help elucidate some of the problems, the conceptual and methodological bases of the Exercise-induced Feeling Inventory (Gauvin, L., & Rejeski, W.J. (1993). The Exercise-induced Feeling Inventory: Development and initial validation. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 15, 403.) are critiqued, emphasizing deviations from established scale development and validation guidelines.Methods: From a conceptual standpoint, the analysis concentrates on the definition of “feeling states,” the demarcation of the content domain, the decision to adopt a categorical conceptualization of affect, the notion of a universal phenomenology of exercise, and the notion of exercise-specific affect. From a methodological standpoint, emphasis is placed on the item selection and content validation methods, the exploratory structural analysis, and the application of structural equation modeling.Results and conclusions: Substantial deficiencies in conceptual groundwork and deviations from established guidelines are identified that may have important implications for the validity and utility of the EFI.     

Analysis of the affect measurement conundrum in exercise psychology. III. A conceptual and methodological critique of the Subjective Exercise Experiences Scale

Background and purpose. The general purpose of this series is to examine the controversy that surrounds the measurement of affect in the context of acute exercise. The present paper focuses on the conceptual underpinnings and the methodological steps that were followed in the development of an increasingly popular measure, namely the Subjective Exercise Experiences Scale (SEES) (J Sport Exercise Psychol, 16 (1994) 163). Emphasis is placed on how conceptual ambiguities may influence methodological decisions and, ultimately, the content and structure of a measure.Methods. From a conceptual standpoint, attention is given to the delineation and demarcation of the content domain of the scale, the decision to adopt a dimensional conceptualization of affect, the notion of ‘subjective experiences unique to exercise’, and, mainly, whether positive and negative affect are independent constructs or the opposite ends of a single bipolar dimension. From a methodological standpoint, the analysis focuses on the process of item selection and content validation, and the exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses.Results and conclusions. Conceptual and empirical evidence is reviewed suggesting that: (a) there is ambiguity regarding the nature and the limits of the content domain of the SEES; (b) the notion of ‘subjective experiences unique to exercise’ presents considerable logical problems; and (c) positive and negative affect are not necessarily independent constructs. In conclusion, the analysis underscores the importance of conceptual groundwork and clarity as prerequisites for methodological implementation.     

The measurement of core affect: a Swedish self-report measure derived from the affect circumplex

Three studies were conducted with the aim of developing a new Swedish self-report measure of core affect (the Swedish Core Affect Scale or SCAS). In Study 1,122 participants rated their current mood on 24 unipolar adjective scales. A revised set of 12 bipolar adjective scales was evaluated in Study 2 employing 96 participants who rated their current mood before and after a mood-inducing naturally occurring event. A slightly revised set of adjective scales was used in Study 3, in which another 96 participants rated several induced moods. The results showed that the adjective scale ratings could be aggregated as reliable measures of the independent valence and activation dimensions proposed in the affect circumplex, and that the aggregated measures discriminated mood differences within and between individuals.     

Chinese affect circumplex: I. Structure of recalled momentary affect

The structure of momentary affect among Cantonese-speaking Chinese was explored by developing questionnaire scales in four response formats. Scales can be scored for dimensions defined by Feldman Barrett and Russell; Thayer; Larsen and Diener; and Watson and Tellegen. In a study of recalled affect ( N  = 487), the newly translated scales were found to support all but Watson and Tellegen's structural model originating from English. Results cross-validated well in a second sample ( N  = 402). Affect dimensions were interrelated as found with English-speaking Canadians and they could be integrated into a two-dimensional bipolar space.     

The circumplex structure of affect: A Swedish version

The taxonomy of a circumplex model has been widely applied in the emotion domain and especially by researchers advocating a systematic arrangement of conscious emotional experience (see Fabrigar, Visser & Browne, 1997; Feldman Barett & Russell, 1999 for recent reviews). To rule out some of the lexical problems in the naming of affective states in the circumplex space, Larsen and Diener (1992) suggested a labeling system with forty-eight English adjectives representing eight affective states. The objective of the present study was to examine how well Swedish adjectives map onto a dimensional model of this kind, in doing so, to compose a Swedish measure for self-reported affect. The forty-eight Swedish adjectives translated from Larsen and Diener (1992) failed to capture a pure circumplex structure. However, when approximately two thirds of these adjectives were reanalyzed, a reasonable consistency with the circumplex model was reached. This suggested a composite Swedish measure for self-rated affect, with up to four adjectives representing each of the eight affective states in the circumplex space.     

Reliable measurement in sport psychology: The case of performance outcome measures

ObjectivesThe present research addresses a neglected aspect within the current Zeitgeist of improving methodological standards in (sport)psychology: reliable measurement. We discuss and highlight the importance of reliable measurement from different perspectives and empirically assess reliability of three commonly used performance outcome measures in order to give guidelines to researchers on how to increase reliability of measurements of performance outcomes.MethodIn three studies we estimate 5 different reliability coefficients for three performance outcome measures based on 14 golf putts (study 1; N = 100), 14 dart throws (study 2; N = 200; 100 sports students; 100 non-sports students) and 14 free throws in basketball (study 3; N = 192; 100 non-basketball players; 92 basketball players).ResultsThe highest reliability was the odd-even reliability for darts for the whole sample (0.888), followed by golf putts (0.714 for distance from the hole, 0.614 for successful putts) and free throws (0.504 non-basketball players; 0.62 for basketball players; and 0.826 for whole sample).ConclusionsBased on theoretical considerations and our empirical findings we give practical guidelines to improve reliability for performance outcome measures in sport psychology.     

Sociopolitical diversity in psychology. The case for pluralism

Psychology celebrates diversity, recognizes the value and legitimacy of diverse beliefs, and strives to be inclusive. Yet, the profession lacks sociopolitical diversity. Most psychologists are politically liberal, and conservatives are vastly underrepresented in the profession. Moreover, when sociopolitical views guide the research, advocacy, or professional practice of psychologists, those views most often are liberal. The lack of political diversity in psychology has unintended negative consequences for research, policy advocacy, clinical practice, the design and implementation of social interventions, and professional education. It excludes or marginalizes conservatives and conservative views, having detrimental effects on the profession in each of these areas. This article examines the importance of political diversity and the negative consequences of its absence and provides strategies for increasing sociopolitical pluralism in psychology.     

Utopianism in psychology: the case of Wilhelm Reich

This article examines utopian elements in Wilhelm Reich's writings in his American phase (1939-1957) in order to illustrate utopian sources of dynamic psychology. Although there are scholars who have used the term "psychological utopia" and applied it to individual thinkers (Reich, Marcuse, Fromm) and to specific psychological disciplines (psychoanalysis, behaviorism, cognitive psychology), the term itself has remained elusive and vague. Furthermore, there have been few attempts to systematically examine utopian elements in twentieth-century psychology in general and the basic assumptions of psychological utopianism in particular. While pointing out that Reich's orgonomic theories have no scientific merit, this article argues for the relevancy of his ideas for understanding the nature of utopianism in dynamic psychology.     

Reform of statistical inference in psychology: the case of memory & cognition.

Geoffrey Loftus, Editor of Memory & Cognition from 1994 to 1997, strongly encouraged presentation of figures with error bars and avoidance of null hypothesis significance testing (NHST). The authors examined 696 Memory & Cognition articles published before, during, and after the Loftus editorship. Use of figures with bars increased to 47% under Loftus's editorship and then declined. Bars were rarely used for interpretation, and NHST remained almost universal. Analysis of 309 articles in other psychology journals confirmed that Loftus's influence was most evident in the articles he accepted for publication, but was otherwise limited. An e-mail survey of authors of papers accepted by Loftus revealed some support for his policy, but allegiance to traditional practices as well. Reform of psychologists' statistical practices would require more than editorial encouragement.     

How the measurement of memory processes can affect memory performance: the case of remember/know judgments

Relatively little attention has been paid thus far in memory research to the effects of measurement instruments intended to assess memory processes on the constructs being measured. The current article investigates the influence of employing the popular remember/know (R/K) measurement procedure on memory performance itself. This measurement procedure was extensively used in the past to assess the respective contributions of 2 processes to memory judgments, one based on familiarity and the other on recollection. Two experiments using unrelated word pairs showed that the use of an R/K procedure can alter memory performance. Specifically, the R/K procedure improved associative memory among older but not younger adults compared to conditions in which participants were not asked to provide R/K judgments. Such an effect was not observed in item memory performance. Potential mechanisms mediating these differential memory measurement effects are outlined, and the measurement effects' implications for memory and cognitive research are discussed.