The relationships between body mass and body image and relative autonomy for exercise among adolescent males and females

ObjectivesThis study examined the impact of body mass and body image on autonomous motivation for exercise among adolescents. It was predicted that body mass and body size discrepancies would be curvilinearly related to relative autonomy because, from a self-determination theory perspective, being or perceiving that one is under- or over-sized would be experienced as pressure to conform to culturally transmitted standards of an ideal physique, undermining one's sense of autonomy.DesignCross-sectional comparative study.MethodsFifty males (mean age 16.90) and 48 females (mean age 16.88) completed measures of relative autonomy for exercise, discrepancies between perceived and ideal body size, body mass index and physical activity.ResultsHierarchical polynomial regression analyses showed that among males relative autonomy was predicted by both body mass and body size discrepancies. The relationships took an inverted-u form: autonomy was at its maximum when body mass index was around 18.50 and when body size discrepancies were zero. Among females, relative autonomy was predicted by body size discrepancies alone and the relationship was r-shaped: autonomy increased as body size discrepancies became less negative, reaching a maximum and leveling off when the discrepancy was +1.ConclusionsThe gender difference in the effect of body mass and perceived body size discrepancies on autonomous motivation for exercise could be explained by different socio-cultural expectations for males and females in Western societies. For females the cultural norm is a thin and toned physique whereas for males it is a muscular mesomorphic build that is neither thin nor fat.     

An exploration of the attitudinal and perceptual dimensions of body image among male and female adolescents from six Latin American cities

Using survey methodology, this exploratory study examined the attitudinal and perceptual dimensions of body image among 1,272 eighth- and ninth-grade males and females from higher and lower socioeconomic backgrounds in Buenos Aires, Argentina (n = 195), Guatemala City, Guatemala (n = 212), Havana, Cuba (n = 213), Lima, Peru (n = 218), Panama City, Panama (n = 195), and Santiago, Chile (n = 239). The two dimensions of body image were assessed by showing the participants nine male and nine female silhouettes depicting body sizes ranging from extremely thin (#1) to extremely obese (#9). Approximately 50% of the male and female adolescents chose silhouette #3 as best depicting the attractive male body. Silhouette #2 was chosen by 45% of the females as best depicting feminine attractiveness, while 45% of the males chose silhouette #3. When identifying the silhouette that best depicted the healthy male body, 26% of the participants chose silhouette #2, 41% chose #3, and 19% chose #4. Silhouette #2 was selected by 33% of the adolescents as best depicting the healthy female body, 38% chose #3, and 14% chose #4. In all cities, the effect of body mass index (BMI) on body satisfaction was highly significant (p < 0.001). Almost 40% of the middle weight adolescents indicated a preference to be thinner, even though 72% of the males and 84% of the females in this subgroup already perceived themselves as thin. Similarly, 89% of the heavier weight participants indicated a preference to be thinner, even though only 10% of the males and 2% of the females in this subgroup perceived themselves as heavy. In five of the six cities, a significantly higher (p < 0.05) percentage of females than males desired to be thinner, the exception being Havana, where the distribution of desired change in body size was almost identical for males and females. Findings suggest a need for culturally sensitive, age- and gender-specific preventive interventions focusing on the importance of achieving a healthy weight during adolescence to promote body size acceptance among adolescents who are at a healthy weight.     

Acceptance of cosmetic surgery,body appreciation,body ideal internalization,and fashion blog reading among late adolescents in Sweden

This study examined adolescents’ attitudes of cosmetic surgery, as well as the relationships between these attitudes, body appreciation, body ideal internalization, and fashion blog reading. The sample comprised 110 (60 boys, 50 girls) late adolescents (mean age 16.9 years) from a Swedish high school. The results indicated that younger adolescents seem somewhat more accepting of cosmetic surgery. This was especially the case for boys’ acceptance of social motives for obtaining cosmetic surgery (boys’ M = 2.3 ± 1.55 vs. girls’ M = 1.7 ± 0.89). Girls’, and to a limited extent boys’, internalization of the thin ideal was related to more favorable cosmetic surgery attitudes. Athletic ideal internalization and body appreciation were unrelated to these attitudes. Finally, girls who frequently read fashion blogs reported higher thin ideal internalization, and also demonstrated a slight tendency of more cosmetic surgery consideration.     

Black and white adolescent males' perceptions of ideal body size

A stratified random sample of 496 white (n =337) and black (n =159) adolescent males participated in a survey of ideal body size beliefs. Responses to the questionnaire and a series of nine female and male body size drawings were analyzed using the General Linear Model Analysis of Variance and Categorical Modeling. Using SES and race as independent variables and BMI (kg/m ²)as a covariate, black males were found to prefer a significantly heavier ideal female body size than whites (p <.0001) and also perceived that their parents, female friends, and male friends would select as ideal a significantly heavier female body size than white subjects. Black subjects were 1.9 times (O.R. = 1.88, 95% C.I. = 1.44, 2.47) more likely to select a larger ideal female hip/buttocks size and 1.7 times (O.R. = 1.72, 95% C.I. = 1.25, 2.37) more likely to choose a larger ideal female thigh size than white subjects. Our findings seem to point toward a greater approval and social acceptance of a larger body size for black females by black males. This study was conducted by the University of South Carolina School of Public Health and funded in part by ASPH-CDC Cooperative Agreement, Center for Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control, Atlanta, Georgia.     

Media influence and body dissatisfaction in preadolescent ballet dancers and non-physically active girls

ObjectivesThe present study analysed media influences and body dissatisfaction in preadolescent non-professional female ballet dancers and non-physically active girls.DesignCross-sectional design.MethodParticipants were 135 Italian preadolescent girls: 67 non-professional ballet dancers (M = 12.28 years) and 68 non-physically active girls (M = 12.56 years). Participants completed a questionnaire assessing body mass index (BMI), perceived media pressure to reach the societal body ideal, thin-ideal internalization, athletic internalization and body dissatisfaction.ResultsNo significant differences between ballet dancers and non-dancers emerged on age; however, dancers had a significantly lower BMI. Therefore, BMI was used as a covariate. No significant difference between the two groups emerged on perceived media pressure or thin-ideal internalization. Ballet dancers reported a higher level of athletic internalization and were more dissatisfied with their bodies than non-physically active girls. BMI emerged as the most important predictor of preadolescents' body dissatisfaction for both groups. Among non-dancers, perceived media pressure predicted body dissatisfaction both directly and indirectly via thin-ideal internalization. Among dancers, perceived media pressure predicted body dissatisfaction both directly and indirectly via athletic internalization but not via thin-ideal internalization.ConclusionsMedia influence emerged as an important predictor of body dissatisfaction for both groups, although the internalization of an athletic body ideal was more salient for the ballet dancers. These findings are noteworthy because they offer some clues for possible intervention programs aimed at promoting healthier body images in preadolescent ballet dancers and non-dancers and extend the existing literature on ballet dancers' body dissatisfaction.     

What Difference Can a Year Make? Changes in Functional and Aesthetic Body Satisfaction Among Male and Female Adolescents Over a Year

The current study explored changes in functional and aesthetic body satisfaction among Australian adolescents over a year. Data were collected from 1,342 Australian adolescents (567 males, 775 females) across two grade cohorts (Grades 8 and 10) at Wave 1 (W1; mean age = 13.7) and again 12 months later at Wave 2 (W2). Participants' functional and aesthetic body satisfaction, body mass index (BMI), and relative pubertal timing were measured. Body image change was explored across both grade cohort and gender, controlling for differences in BMI change and relative pubertal timing. Females reported lower overall (functional and aesthetic) body satisfaction than males. Participants reported higher functional and aesthetic body satisfaction at W1 than W2. Although both males and females reported a significant decrease in body satisfaction over the 12‐month period, this decrease was stronger among female participants. ^?Cohort differences were also found with older adolescents reporting lower functional body satisfaction.     

Gender and ethnic differences in body image and opposite sex figure preferences of rural adolescents

This study examined whether rural adolescents would report gender and ethnic differences in body image similar to those that have been observed in urban samples. Data were analyzed for 384 rural adolescents (57% African American, 43% Caucasian, mean age 13 years) to determine gender and ethnic differences in body dissatisfaction, body size discrepancy, and current and ideal figure ratings. Females wanted to be smaller and reported more body dissatisfaction than did males. Caucasian females reported the most body dissatisfaction. African Americans reported larger current and ideal figure ratings than did Caucasians. African Americans preferred larger opposite sex figures than did Caucasians. Both African American and Caucasian males selected a larger female figure as ideal than was selected by females. Results demonstrated that gender and ethnic differences exist in body image for rural adolescents. This frequently overlooked population may benefit from further study. Implications of findings and limitations of the study are also discussed.     

Exploring Internet Motives and Life Satisfaction Among Hungarian and Israeli Medical Students, Living in Hungary

Objective Using the Internet can influence psychological well-being, for instance life satisfaction has been negatively related to Internet uses. The first aim of this study was to compare the motives for Internet use and life satisfaction. The second aim was to explore nation- and gender-based differences in Internet uses. Method The questionnaires related to Internet motives and life satisfaction, and were filled out by 300 medical students, including 150 Israeli students (75 females, 75 males) and 150 Hungarian students (75 females, 75 males). Results In the Israeli and Hungarian sample, the entertainment motive was rated the highest while the escape motive was rated the lowest. There were significant differences between the Israeli male and female students in arousal and information-seeking, while for the Hungarian male and female students there were significant differences for pass time. Life satisfaction was higher in the Israeli sample. In both samples it was shown that the higher the life satisfaction was, the less likely the students were to use the Internet for companionship purposes. Again in both samples, a higher life satisfaction predicted less frequent use of the Internet for the social interaction motives.     

Body size dissatisfaction and avoidance behavior: How gender,age, ethnicity,and relative clothing size predict what some won’t try

Sixty-eight percent of U.S. adults are overweight/obese, and this epidemic has physical, psychosocial, and behavioral consequences. An internet sample of adults (N = 2997) perceiving themselves as larger than ideal in clothing size reported their body mass index (BMI), relative clothing size (RS; discrepancy between current and ideal size), and avoidance behaviors. Exploratory factor analysis of 10 avoidance items produced social avoidance and body display avoidance factors. A relative importance analysis revealed RS as a better predictor than BMI for avoidance. A hierarchical multivariate analysis of covariance found RS to predict both avoidance constructs. The relationship between RS and both avoidance constructs was stronger for women than men, and for younger as compared to older participants. Caucasians reported more body display avoidance than African Americans. This suggests that personal dissatisfaction with body size may deter involvement in varied life events and that women are especially avoidant of activities that entail displaying their bodies.     

Predictive models for understanding body dissatisfaction among young males and females in China

The present study was designed to develop predictive models for understanding body dissatisfaction among young males and females (N=1377) in China. Six factors were assessed, including body mass index (BMI), perception of teasing, social pressure to be thin, appearance comparison, thin-ideal internalization and perceived social support. Variables were examined respectively for males and females. One SEM model, which had good fit indices, was developed for each gender. For both genders, BMI exerted its influence on body image directly and indirectly through perception of teasing. Two sources of sociocultural influence, perception of teasing and social pressure to be thin, also directly predicted body dissatisfaction. Gender differences were found in the relation between mediational mechanisms (social comparison and thin-ideal internalization) and body dissatisfaction. For females but not males, social comparison and internalization acted as weak but significant mediators between sociocultural influence and body image concerns. Implications and limitations are discussed.     

Parent, peer, and media influences on body image and strategies to both increase and decrease body size among adolescent boys and girls

This study investigated the nature of body image and body change strategies, as well as the sociocultural influences on these variables, among a group of 1,266 adolescents (622 males, 644 females). In particular, it investigated weight gain and increased muscle, as well as weight loss. It was found that females were less satisfied with their bodies and were more likely to adopt strategies to lose weight, whereas males were more likely to adopt strategies to increase weight and muscle tone. Respondents with higher body mass index (BMI) evidenced greater body dissatisfaction and more weight loss strategies, but there were no differences between BMI groups in weight gain or strategies to increase muscles. Weight gain and strategies to increase muscles were more likely to be undertaken by older adolescents, but there were no grade level differences in weight loss. Media influences to alter weight, as well as feedback from mother, father, and both male and female peers, were greater for females. There were few grade level or BMI differences in regard to any of the sociocultural influences. The importance of these findings in terms of providing a better understanding of factors which may lead to a disturbed body image and body change disorders, particularly among adolescent boys, is discussed.     

Youths’ attributions for power-related gender differences: nature,nurture, or God?

This study examined beliefs about power-related gender traits among 73 early adolescents in middle school (M age=12.5), 84 late adolescents in high school (M age=16.1), and 111 young adults in college (M age=20.9). Males believed that men had more dominant traits than female participants, and females thought that women had more submissive traits than male participants. Older participants perceived more gender differentiation for these traits than younger participants. Youths believed most strongly in social explanations for differences, followed by biological and religious explanations, although there were age and sex differences in responses. Findings suggest that religious and biological attributions decrease between early adolescence and adulthood for both males and females, but that social attributions increase for females only. Religious attributions were linked to traditional attitudes towards women, social attributions were linked to egalitarian attitudes, while biological attributions were linked to traditional attitudes for males only.     

Comparing the torque- and power-velocity relationships between children and adolescents during isokinetic leg extension muscle actions

The purpose of this study was to use polynomial regression analyses to examine the torque- and power-velocity relationships and calculate and compare the vertices of these nonlinear models, and how they relate to measurements of muscle size and maximal strength, between male and female children and adolescents during maximal isokinetic leg extension muscle actions. Sixteen children (n = 8 males, n = 8 females) and 22 adolescents (n = 11 males, n = 11 females) participated in this study. Measurements of growth included age, maturity offset, height, body mass, fat-free mass, and quadriceps femoris muscle cross-sectional area (CSA). Participants completed maximal voluntary isometric contractions (MVICs) of the leg extensors and maximal voluntary isokinetic leg extensions at 60, 120, 180, 240, and 300°·s⁻¹. Variables calculated during all leg extension muscle actions included peak torque (PT, Nm) and mean power (MP, W). Polynomial regression analyses determined the model of best fit for the PT- and MP-velocity relationships. For each participant, the vertex from the PT- and MP-velocity quadratic models were quantified as the predicted maximum velocity of last measurable torque (V_PT) and the predicted velocity of maximum mean power (V_MP), respectively. Measurements of growth, PT and MP at all velocities, V_PT, and V_MP were greater in the adolescents than children. When normalized to CSA, V_PT and V_MP remained greater for adolescents than children, and exhibited low to very high relationships with measurements of growth. When normalized to MVIC strength, V_PT and V_MP were no longer different between children and adolescents and exhibited negligible to low relationships with measurements of growth. The results of the present study suggest that the ability to produce torque and power at high velocities may be more dependent on muscle strength than muscle size, which suggests that mechanisms other than muscular hypertrophy affect torque and power production at high velocities in young males and females.     

Body dissatisfaction,engagement in body change behaviors and sociocultural influences on body image among Chinese adolescents

Body dissatisfaction and body image disorders are becoming increasingly prevalent in developing non-Western countries such as China, but there is a lack of research examining the sociocultural factors that in other contexts have been associated with these problems. The current study investigated body dissatisfaction, engagement in body change behaviors, and sociocultural pressures on body image, and the relationships between these variables among 517 adolescent males (N = 219) and females (N = 298) in China. Females reported greater body dissatisfaction than males, and males reported using strategies to increase their muscle bulk more often than females. Males reported pressure from a variety of sociocultural sources to increase their muscles or weight, while females reported pressure from the media to lose weight. For males body dissatisfaction was predicted by pressure from peers to increase their muscle bulk, while for females pressure to lose weight from peers, adult relatives, and the media was likely to increase body dissatisfaction. Pressure from the media and adult relatives was also predictive of body change behaviors in both males and females. The findings are discussed in relation to previous research in both Western and non-Western contexts.     

Risk Factors for Disordered Eating During Early and Middle Adolescence: A Two Year Longitudinal Study of Mainland Chinese Boys and Girls

Even though reliable eating disorder risk factors have been identified among adolescent girls, little is known about predictors of increased vulnerability within specific phases of adolescence or among adolescent boys, particularly in highly populated non-Western contexts. In this study, early and middle adolescent boys (n?=?1,271) and girls (n?=?1,415) from Chongqing, China completed validated measures of eating disorder pathology and putative risk factors at baseline and 2 years follow-up. Multivariate models for boys of each age group indicated increases in disordered eating at follow-up were predicted by higher initial body mass index, negative affect and body dissatisfaction levels as well as attendant increases in perceived appearance pressure from mass media, body dissatisfaction, negative affect between assessments. High baseline levels of reported appearance pressure from parents and dating partners contributed, respectively, to prediction models of younger and older boys. More distinct constellations of significant predictors emerged in multivariate models of early versus middle adolescent girls. Together, findings indicated body dissatisfaction and negative affect were fairly robust risk factors for exacerbations in disturbances across samples while risk factors such as perceived pressure from desired/prospective dating partners were salient only during particular phases of adolescence.     

Threat of the thin-ideal body image and body malleability beliefs: effects on body image self-discrepancies and behavioral intentions

This study examined the effect of the threat aroused by the perception of thin-ideal images combined with beliefs about the malleability of the body on perceived/objective, ideal/objective and ought/objective body image self-discrepancies. An experimental computer program enabled women (N=82) to artificially increase or decrease the shape of their own body (previously photographed) in response to questions about their "actual", "ideal" and "ought" body self-perceptions. As predicted, results showed that women had greater body self-discrepancies when confronted with threatening thin ideals, regardless of their body mass index. The size of this trend depended on the way they were made to think of their body (malleable vs. fixed). Findings also suggested a possible relationship between body self-representations and eating behaviors or intentions. The impact of thin-ideal threats and body malleability beliefs on body perception is discussed.     

Body image disturbance and relationship satisfaction among college students

Two hundred and eighty-two college undergraduate and graduate students, including 81 males and 201 females, responded to an on-line survey measuring relationship satisfaction, body image distortion and body dissatisfaction, self esteem, and thoughts about weight loss. A modified Kansas Marital Satisfaction Scale (KMSS) queried respondents about their relationship satisfaction as well as their perception of their partner’s satisfaction with the relationship. Respondents checked one of 17 figural drawings indicating their perceived and ideal size as well as judgments of perceived and ideal size of their partner. Females had greater body image size distortion and body dissatisfaction, lower self esteem, and more frequent thoughts about weight loss. Males were more dissatisfied with their partner’s size. Respondent’s body size distortion predicted perceived partner relationship satisfaction, with greater size distortion predicting less perceived partner relationship satisfaction. Greater perceived partner relationship satisfaction predicted increased respondents’ relationship satisfaction. Perceived partner’s dissatisfaction with respondent’s body size only approached significance as a predictor of respondent’s relationship satisfaction. However, the strength of this variable as a predictor warrants further examination of its potential role in relationship satisfaction.     

Internalization of the thin and muscular body ideal and disordered eating in adolescence: the mediation effects of body esteem

This study investigates body esteem factors (weight-esteem and appearance-esteem) as mediators of the relationship between ‘internalization of the ideal body figure’ and disordered eating behaviors (restrained, emotional and external eating) in a community sample of adolescent males (n = 810) and females (n = 1137) from the Ontario Research on Eating and Adolescent Lifestyles (REAL) study. Mediation models were examined using a bootstrapping approach to test indirect effects and indirect contrasts. In males, weight-esteem partially mediated the relationship between muscular ideal and restrained eating; appearance-esteem partially mediated effects in the emotional and external eating regressions. In females, both weight-esteem and appearance-esteem partially mediated the relationship between thin ideal and all three forms of disordered eating; weight-esteem was a stronger mediator for restrained eating, and appearance-esteem a stronger mediator for emotional and external eating. Body esteem is important to consider for prevention and treatment of disordered eating in both genders.     

Athletic-ideal and thin-ideal internalization as prospective predictors of body dissatisfaction,dieting, and compulsive exercise

Although internalization of the thin ideal has been extensively researched and is now regarded as a risk factor for eating disturbance, endorsement of the firm, athletic body ideal has received only minimal attention. This short-term longitudinal study explored whether internalization of two aspects of the current cultural ideal (thinness and athleticism) prospectively predicted three potentially deleterious outcomes: body dissatisfaction, dieting, and compulsive exercise. Undergraduate women (N = 231) completed self-report measures at the beginning of the academic year and again 7 months later (N = 156 at Time 2). Athletic-ideal internalization predicted change in compulsive exercise over the 7-month study period but not body dissatisfaction or dieting; thin-ideal internalization predicted change in all three outcomes. When both internalization measures were tested simultaneously, neither contributed unique variance. Results suggest that athletic-ideal internalization is not as detrimental as thin-ideal internalization.     

Directional discrepancy between implicit and explicit power motives is related to well-being among managers

This study investigates explicit –implicit motive discrepancies and their effect on well-being. Participants were 382 executive managers (107 females and 275 males). Female managers had higher explicit affiliation scores than males, whereas male managers had marginally significant higher explicit power scores than females. Males and females did not differ in their implicit motives. We expected a directional discrepancy on the power motive (explicit vs. implicit: “Striving for goals without gaining pleasure from doing so”) to predict impaired well-being. Results were consistent with this hypothesis, using polynomial regression analysis with response surface methods, instead of calculating motive difference scores. Discrepancies in the achievement and affiliation motives were not related to well-being. Results are discussed considering the specificity of motive discrepancies for selected groups, such as managers, and the importance of distinguishing between absolute versus directional motive discrepancy scores in motivation research.