Combinations of response-reinforcer dependence and independence

The contribution of the response-reinforcer dependency to the control of behavior was investigated. Pigeons were trained to key peck under a variable-interval schedule of reinforcement. With the total number and temporal distribution of reinforcer deliveries in experimental sessions constant, the effects of varying the percentage of response-independent reinforcement were examined. At different times, 100%, 66%, 33%, 10%, or 0% of the scheduled reinforcers were delivered dependent upon key pecking and the remainder were delivered independently of responding. Response rates were related to the percentage of response-dependent reinforcement with lower response rates associated with smaller percentages of response-dependent reinforcement. The results suggest that the response-reinforcer relation exerts control over behavior in a manner similar to that exerted by other parameters of reinforcement.     

Response-reinforcer dependence and independence in multiple and mixed schedules

Albino rats were conditioned to lever press during two-component multiple and mixed schedules in which response-dependent and response-independent reinforcers occurred in the different components. Relative response rates in the components associated with response-dependent reinforcers were higher (a) when different visual and auditory stimuli were associated with the two components and (b) when mixed schedule components were long in duration. These results illustrate the contribution of the response-reinforcer relation to stimulus control and schedule control of behavior. They also suggest that under some conditions, reinforcers need not be consistently associated with a particular response to ensure that the response is maintained at a relatively high rate.     

The choices and preferences of nursery school children

After a period of equal reinforcement for choices of any job revealed which of 10 jobs each of 24 preschool children preferred and did not prefer, token payment became dependent on particular choices. Some children received tokens only for choosing previously non-preferred jobs, others for choosing previously preferred jobs. When tokens depended on choosing the nonpreferred jobs, those came to be preferred. When tokens depended on choosing the preferred jobs, the preferences were strengthened. The effects were replicated both within and between subjects, except in the case of one boy who consistently avoided token pay.     

Peer and parent-child interaction before and after enrollment in nursery school

Forty-five three-year-olds and their parents participated in the research. Twenty-four of the children were observed two months and one week before, as well as two months after, enrollment in a nursery school. The others were observed at comparable intervals, but remained at home in the fulltime care of their parents. On all occasions, the children who were about to enter or had entered nursery school engaged in more positive interaction with and sought more proximity to their parents than the home care children did. These tendencies were unaffected by enrollment in nursery school. There were no differences between nursery school and home care children on measures of peer interaction eithe before or after nursery school began. The need to consider differences between nursery school and home care children that antedate enrollment is emphasized.     

Relationship of field dependence/independence to adaption-innovation in alcoholics

Using alcoholics as subjects, the present study attempted a replication of Kirton's 1978 study in which he demonstrated a relationship between his adaption-innovation theory and Witkin's concept of field dependence/independence. Correlations obtained in the present study paralleled those of Kirton. As a group, alcoholics tended to be field-dependent in orientation. Innovators were less field-dependent than adaptors and "average" individuals. It was suggested that the varied characteristics of alcoholics should be considered when planning therapeutic strategies.     

Relationship between birth order and leadership style for nursery school children

36 nursery school children were given a revised form of Fiedler's (1967) least preferred co-worker scale designated as the least preferred playmate scale. The purpose was to investigate the relationship between least preferred playmate scores and the birth order of young children. A 2 X 2 contingency table was constructed between birth order (first and later born) and leadership style (high and low). The resulting chi squares were insignificant for the total population and for males. However, for females the results were significant with a higher percentage of firstborns being task-oriented (low score) and a higher percentage of later borns being relation-oriented (high score).     

Field dependence/independence and mental capacity: A developmental approach

In this study we tested a central theoretical assumption of J. Pascual-Leone's (1970, Acta Psychologica, 32, 301–345) model of cognitive development, that same-age field-dependent and field-independent children have the same developmental mental capacity. The study was conducted on a very heterogeneous population, regarding both social class and age, to allow for a large variance of performance scores. The theoretical assumption was strongly supported.     

Sequential transfer to related oddity problems by nursery school children

The initial learning and subsequent transfer of an oddity principle by children between 4 and 5 years of age were studied. The initial standard oddity problem was learned quickly by most of the children. A high level of performance was maintained on both transfer sets. The results were related to limitations placed on the oddity solutions learned by 4-year-olds by particular aspects of the original learning context.     

The dependency paradox in close relationships: accepting dependence promotes independence

Using multiple methods, this investigation tested the hypothesis that a close relationship partner's acceptance of dependence when needed (e.g., sensitive responsiveness to distress cues) is associated with less dependence, more autonomous functioning, and more self-sufficiency (as opposed to more dependence) on the part of the supported individual. In two studies, measures of acceptance of dependency needs and independent functioning were obtained through couple member reports, by observing couple members' behaviors during laboratory interactions, by observing responses to experimentally manipulated partner assistance provided during an individual laboratory task, and by following couples over a period of 6 months to examine independent goal striving as a function of prior assessments of dependency acceptance. Results provided converging evidence in support of the proposed hypothesis. Implications of the importance of close relationships for optimal individual functioning are discussed.     

Mothers' subjective employment experiences and the behaviour of their nursery school children

Most research on the effects of maternal employment on children has followed the ‘maternal deprivation’ hypothesis, which focuses on differences in the behaviour of children of employed and non-employed mothers. Yet this framework may have impeded an examination of a more relevant question, namely the impact of mothers' employment-related experiences. Accordingly, this study assesses the influence of mothers' job satisfaction, job involvement and role conflict on the behaviour of their nursery school sons and daughters (n=46 and 45 respectively). The effects of maternal employment on their nursery school children were found to be mediated by (a) the nature and quality of the employment experience (i.e. positive or negative), (b) the type of child behaviour assessed, and (c) the sex of the child. Mothers' job satisfaction was positively associated with daughters' self-control and negatively with conduct problems; their role conflict was negatively related to sons' and daughters' self-control, and positively associated with sons' conduct problems and daughters' immaturity. These results support the hypothesis that the quality of the maternal employment experience influences nursery school children's behaviour.