Selection of Decision Strategies After Conscious and Unconscious Thought

It is commonly assumed that the use of simple, non‐compensatory strategies is especially pronounced in memory‐based decisions, where information costs are high. At the same time, there is evidence that in memory‐based decisions, a compensatory processing of attributes is facilitated when the processing occurs unconsciously rather than consciously. We applied a strategy classification approach—developed in research on non‐compensatory heuristics—to test two key tenets of unconscious thought theory: the capacity principle and the weighting principle. Participants memorized attribute information about cars and were subsequently either directed to or diverted from thinking consciously about their preferences between the cars (conscious versus unconscious thought). Then, participants indicated in pair‐wise choices which car they would prefer and were classified (based on their choices) as using either one of two compensatory strategies (equal weight or weighted additive) or a non‐compensatory strategy (lexicographic heuristic). In line with the capacity principle, the number of participants best described by a compensatory strategy (the equal‐weight strategy) tended to be higher after unconscious thought than after conscious thought, whereas the number of participants best described by the lexicographic heuristic tended to be lower. Inconsistent with the weighting principle, participants in the unconscious thought condition were better described by the equal‐weight strategy than by the weighted‐additive strategy. In Experiment 2, in which participants were not instructed to form an impression while learning the attribute information, the use of the equal‐weight strategy was not more prevalent after unconscious thought. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

意识思维和无意识思维对复杂决策的影响

以大学生为被试,以汽车作为实验材料,通过对12条汽车属性信息的操纵,设置出四款优差不同的汽车。通过对汽车的优差选择,探察在属性信息逐条呈现的情况下,有意识思维与无意识思维对复杂决策的影响。研究结果表明:在反应时上,无意识思维下的决策时间要比有意识思维下的决策时间长;在选择的正确率上,有意识思维决策的结果要优于无意识思维决策的结果;在信息回忆量上,有意识思维决策的回忆量要多于无意识思维决策的回忆量,这与无意识思维理论是相违背的。     

Conscious and Unconscious Metacognition: A Rejoinder

In this rejoinder we clarify several issues raised by the commentators with the hope of resolving some disagreements. In particular, we address the distinction between information-based and experience-based metacognitive judgments and the idea that memory monitoring may be mediated by direct access to internal representations. We then examine the possibility of unconscious metacognitive processes and expand on the critical role that conscious metacognitive feelings play in mediating between unconscious activations and explicit-controlled action. Finally, several open questions are articulated for further scrutiny.     

Conscious and Unconscious Use of Self: The Evolution of a Process

Recent emphasis has been placed on the central role of the therapeutic relationship in successful treatment. One aspect of the development of an effective relationship is the clinical social worker's use of self. We argue that the use of self happens both consciously and unconsciously and is a dynamic and evolving process in psychotherapy. This evolution can result in the clinical social worker shifting from a stance of doing to being. Drawing from a Japanese tradition of learning, three stages of learning provide a framework for understanding how therapists may transition from a state of doing to being in the therapy. Through this process, the conscious use of self may develop into unconscious use of self. Two case examples demonstrate how expanding and using one's self-awareness and the new knowledge through meaningful learning experiences can shift a clinical social worker's ability to develop and enhance his or her use of self, inviting therapeutic presence and depth.     

意识和无意识活动的脑区能态理论

本文在脑的四个功能系统学说的基础上,提出脑区能态理论,研究有意识、无意识和潜意识。讨论有意识、无意识、潜意识的脑机制,指出有意识、无意识、潜意识的统一性。     

STROOP效应及其反转：无意识和意识知觉

该研究基于Stroop效应确立了意识知觉和无意识知觉间的质的差异,刺激特性(呈现时间)的改变和注意的改变引起了非常类似的行为上的质差模式,二者在决定意识时存在着补偿作用。当色词短暂呈现而被无意识知觉时,被试在对靶颜色进行命名时不能利用色词提供的预期信息,从而反应时出现典型的Stroop效应;而通过增强刺激特性或提高注意水平可以使色词被有意识知觉。从而出现了Stroop效应的反转。     

A Theory of Unconscious Thought

ABSTRACT— We present a theory about human thought named the unconscious-thought theory (UTT). The theory is applicable to decision making, impression formation, attitude formation and change, problem solving, and creativity. It distinguishes between two modes of thought: unconscious and conscious. Unconscious thought and conscious thought have different characteristics, and these different characteristics make each mode preferable under different circumstances. For instance, contrary to popular belief, decisions about simple issues can be better tackled by conscious thought, whereas decisions about complex matters can be better approached with unconscious thought. The relations between the theory and decision strategies, and between the theory and intuition, are discussed. We end by discussing caveats and future directions.     

Effect of Presentation Format and Expertise on Attacking-Drill Memorization in Soccer

This study investigates the effects of expertise and presentation format on memorization processes in 24 expert and 24 novice soccer players, using a 2 × 3 factorial design with factors expertise (novice vs. expert) and presentation format (static vs. dynamic vs. combined). Players completed a recall reconstruction test and rated their invested mental effort after studying a static, dynamic and combined format presentation. Results indicated (a) that novices benefited more from the static than dynamic format, while expert players benefited more from the dynamic than static format; and (b) a negative effect of the combined format on the learning process of the two groups. Findings suggest the need to adapt the presentation format to players with different levels of expertise.     

Mental Causation,Conscious and Unconscious: A Reply to Anthonie Meijers

While the recent publication of the Hannah Arendt-Martin Heidegger correspondence confirms that there existed a close personal tie between these two thinkers, the relation between their philosophies is far more problematic. This article argues that Arendt's originality presents itself in its full light in her two major theoretical works of the 1950s, Between Past and Future and The Human Condition , when these works are considered to present a thinly veiled, implicit critique of Heidegger's philosophy. Arendt's critique becomes especially visible in the 'existential' role that she attributed to natality in its relation to political action and to remembrance, placing in question the central orientation of Heidegger's existential ontology in terms of being-toward-death.     

Performances of Faith: A Relation Between Conscious and Unconscious Organizations of Faith

Performances of faith are found in ordinary and extraordinary stories, behavior, and rituals, and they are inextricably yoked to unconscious and conscious processes and organizations of faith experience. This article explores the relation between unconscious and conscious processes and organizations of faith. The claim is that the unconscious system represents unformulated experiences of faith that are affectively and relationally organized. In human development these unconscious organizations of faith experience are partially transformed by a person's conscious and self-reflective use of symbols and language. At the same time, conscious and self-reflective organizations of faith, manifested in narratives, rituals, and use of other symbolic media, continue to be shaped by unconscious processes and unconscious configurations of faith. An appreciation of the dynamic interaction between unconscious and conscious processes and organizations of faith focuses one's attention to the complexity of human performances of faith in ministry.     

依恋表征的意识和无意识性初探

采用关系等级问卷、亲密关系经历问卷和内隐联想测验(IAT)分别作为研究依恋表征的外显和内隐的测量工具,以103名处于恋爱关系中的大学生和研究生为被试,探讨一般依恋表征和特殊依恋表征的意识性与无意识性以及它们的一致性。结果发现:(1)一般依恋表征和特殊依恋表征中,安全型和恐惧型的个体在无意识层面上的反应时表现与外显理论相符,过度投入型的被试意识和无意识的表现不一致;(2)个体在无意识水平上对目标人物积极评价的差异与个体在意识水平上的依恋状况(一般依恋关系和婚恋关系)有关。(3)一般依恋表征中过度投入型和冷漠型被试,内隐联想测验和外显依恋量表结果一致的占33%;特殊依恋表征中过度投入型和冷漠型被试,内隐联想测验和外显依恋量表结果一致的占37%。     

Four empirical tests of Unconscious Thought Theory

According to Unconscious Thought Theory, people make better decisions after unconscious than after conscious thought (Dijksterhuis, Bos, Nordgren, & van Baaren, 2006a). Unconscious Thought Theory yields four specific predictions. First, an exact replication of Dijksterhuis et al. (2006a) study should indicate that unconscious decisions are superior to conscious decisions. Second, decisions should improve with duration of conscious thought. Third, unconscious decisions should be superior to conscious decisions, even if unconscious decisions are deliberated while having access to information. Fourth, unconscious decisions should be based on a weighting strategy. We report results of four studies, featuring 480 participants, that yield no evidence in favor of these predictions. Therefore our findings cast doubt on Unconscious Thought Theory and its advice to base decisions on unconscious thought. The results of our studies suggest that it is better to base decisions on conscious thought while having access to information.     

Adult Age Differences in Conscious and Unconscious Influences on Memory for Novel Associations

Forty-eight younger and 48 older adults generated sentences under self-paced conditions for semantically unrelated word pairs. Then they completed word + word stem pairs under inclusion and exclusion instructions for items that appeared in the same or different context relative to study. Performance on the inclusion and exclusion tasks was transformed into estimates of conscious and unconscious influences on memory by a series of equations as specified by Jacoby's (1991) Process Dissociation Procedure (PDP). Three notable findings were obtained. First, younger and older adults displayed a context effect when conscious, but not unconscious, influences on memory were considered. Second, age invariance in the strength of unconscious influences on memory was observed when data analysis was performed on the entire subject sample. In contrast, the estimated strength of unconscious contributions to memory was stronger for younger than older adults when data analysis was restricted to participants who made errors on the exclusion task. Third, conscious influences on memory were stronger for younger than older adults regardless of which method of data analysis was used. Taken together, these findings shed light on previous research which has examined the complex relationship between age, test awareness, and the implicit retention of novel verbal associations. They also highlight some of the methodological issues regarding the use of the PDP to measure age-related differences in the strength of unconscious memory processes.     

无意识研究新进展:无意识思维理论述评

无意识思维理论(UTT)是近期对无意识思维研究的最新成果。该文主要从无意识思维原理、容量原理、自下而上对自上而下加工原理、权重原理、规则原理、聚合对发散原理等6个方面对UTT进行了详细阐述。在此基础上,简评了UTT的理论特点及存在问题,并进一步从信息编码、目标和无意识思维加工机制等三个方面提出了今后的研究方向。     

The Linguistic Determination of Conscious Thought Contents

In this paper we address the question of what determines the content of our conscious episodes of thinking, considering recent claims that phenomenal character individuates thought contents. We present one prominent way for defenders of phenomenal intentionality to develop that view and then examine ‘sensory inner speech views’, which provide an alternative way of accounting for thought‐content determinacy. We argue that such views fare well with inner speech thinking but have problems accounting for unsymbolized thinking. Within this dialectic, we present an account of the nature of unsymbolized thinking that accords with and can be seen as a continuation of the activity of inner speech, while offering a way of explaining thought‐content determinacy in terms of linguistic structures and representations.     

运动决策中的无意识思维研究

本研究以81名篮球专业的大学生为被试,通过决策篮球视频,考察运动决策中的无意识思维效应。实验1探讨了不同运动决策信息下的无意识思维决策差异,发现呈现直觉性决策信息时,无意识思维组的决策效果好于意识思维组。实验2在无意识思维阶段通过启动被试的加工方式,考察直觉性决策信息下,启动不同的加工方式对运动决策的无意识思维效应的影响,发现整体加工组的无意识思维决策效果最佳。研究结果表明,直觉性决策信息下,启动被试的整体加工方式,其无意识思维的决策效果会有所提升。     

In Defense of Consciousness: The Role of Conscious and Unconscious Inputs in Consumer Choice

Although the argument that unconscious inputs are often key determinants of consumer decision making is compelling, it may be overstated, particularly with respect to choice. A comparison of the effect of conscious inputs (e.g., the attributes of options in the choice set) and unconscious inputs (e.g., a seemingly irrelevant observation or task) indicates that the former have a significant advantage. In particular, the impact of conscious inputs is supported by choice task norms and is less susceptible to being lost in the “noise” that is characteristic of most natural consumer environments (e.g., stores). Indeed, although consumers often have limited insight into influences and processes producing their choices, the assumption that consumers base their choices on conscious, willful evaluation of task‐relevant inputs has been quite successful in explaining a wide range of phenomena. It is expected that future research will put greater emphasis on the interactions between conscious and unconscious influences on decision making.     

Unconscious phantasy as an obstacle and as a stimulus to knowledge

This paper underlines and explores the connections between emotional and cognitive development at a very early stage, starting from the psychoanalytic psychotherapy of a 4-year-old boy with autistic features. Development of the personality and development of the mind are shown to proceed together and to be interwoven when the therapist starts to help the child to modulate the terror and the rage related to separation. The development of the idea of a good nipple and the Introjection of it as a mental structure is considered an important step on the way towards separation between mother and baby and towards the formation within the baby self of a space where symbols of the external world can be placed. Autistic features are considered as an extreme form of denial of both internal and external reality.