Visual,Tactile, and Auditory “Not Just Right” Experiences: Associations With Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms and Perfectionism

“Not just right” experiences (NJREs), or uncomfortable sensations associated with the immediate environment not feeling “right,” are thought to contribute to obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) symptomatology. The literature suggests that NJREs are experienced across sensory modalities; however, existing in vivo measures have been restricted to visual inductions (e.g., viewing and/or rearranging a cluttered table). The present study used a large undergraduate sample (N = 284) to examine 4 in vivo tasks designed to elicit and assess NJREs across separate sensory modalities (i.e., visual, tactile, and auditory). Task ratings (discomfort evoked, and urge to counteract task-specific stimuli) were uniquely associated with self-report measures of NJREs, OC symptoms (ordering/arranging, checking, and washing), and certain maladaptive domains of perfectionism (doubts about actions, and organization). Findings have implications for experimental research and clinical work targeting NJREs specific to particular senses.     

Mental Contamination in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Associations With Contamination Symptoms and Treatment Response

The most common symptom of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is contamination fear. Feelings of contamination can be provoked through contact with a physical contaminant, referred to as contact contamination (CC), as well as in the absence of one, referred to as mental contamination (MC). Prior research indicates that CC and MC are distinct, and MC may interfere with treatment for CC. However, no study to date has examined how MC may be associated with responses to physical contaminants and treatment response for CC. This study examined the relationships between CC and MC in a sample of individuals with elevated contamination symptoms (N = 88), half of whom met diagnostic criteria for OCD. Participants engaged in three sessions of exposure and response prevention (ERP) for CC and completed self-report measures and behavioral tasks assessing CC and MC at pretreatment, posttreatment, and follow-up. As hypothesized, at pretreatment, MC was positively associated with reactivity to physical contaminants, even after participants washed their hands. ERP for CC was associated with unique changes in CC and MC across self-report and behavioral measures, and greater pretreatment MC predicted greater posttreatment CC, though this effect was evident in only one of two CC measures. Additionally, specificity analyses indicated changes in MC were independent of changes in disgust propensity, a related construct. Pretreatment disgust propensity also predicted treatment outcome, though the addition of pretreatment disgust propensity as a covariate reduced the relationship between pretreatment MC and posttreatment CC to nonsignificance. Results suggest MC plays an important role in the manifestation and treatment of CC symptoms and may represent a manifestation of disgust proneness. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed.     

Perfectionism as an Explanatory Construct in Comorbidity of Axis I Disorders

Understanding comorbidity is an important challenge for psychopathology researchers and diagnostic systems given the repeated finding of very high comorbidity rates among Axis I disorders in psychiatric samples. This paper proposes that perfectionism may be a critical factor for understanding levels of comorbidity, and a conceptual argument for the importance of perfectionism as an explanatory construct for comorbidity is advanced. The link between perfectionism and comorbidity in a large sample of patients (N = 345) who attended an anxiety disorders clinic is examined using a variety of methods. Diagnoses were established using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID-IV), and perfectionism was assessed using both the Hewitt and Flett and Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scales. Overall, scores on both the Hewitt and Flett and Frost perfectionism scales were correlated with the number of diagnoses, and a logistic regression analysis, controlling for current symptoms, showed that maladaptive evaluative concerns perfectionism in particular predicted higher levels of comorbidity.     

Perfectionism and Sexual Satisfaction in Intimate Relationships

This study sought to provide information on the relations between trait perfectionism and perfectionistic self-presentation and sexual satisfaction in married couples. A sample of 74 married or cohabiting couples were recruited from the community to participate in the study. They completed measures of perfectionism, perfectionistic self-presentation, sexual satisfaction, dyadic adjustment, and depression. The results showed that the interpersonal dimensions of trait perfectionism were negatively related to general sexual satisfaction and sexual satisfaction with the partner for both husbands and wives. After partialing out marital satisfaction and depression, the husband's sexual satisfaction was significantly negatively correlated with his own socially prescribed perfectionism and with his wife's ratings of other-oriented perfectionism. The wife's satisfaction was significantly negatively correlated both with her husband's socially prescribed perfectionism and with her own socially prescribed perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and perfectionistic self-presentation. Regression analyses suggest that the wife's other-oriented perfectionism is a unique predictor of her general lower sexual satisfaction and her husband's lower satisfaction with her contribution to the sexual relationship. Overall, the findings suggest that perfectionistic expectations have an important role to play in sexual satisfaction in married couples.     

Hairpulling and Skin Picking in Relation to Affective Distress and Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms

The current study examined the frequency and associated distress of both hairpulling and skin picking behaviors in 1,324 college students using the Massachusetts General Hospital Hairpulling Scale (MGHHS) and Skin Picking Scale (SPS). In this sample, many participants reported significant distress secondary to both hairpulling and skin picking. Participants who endorsed relatively frequent hairpulling or skin picking (N = 72) were scheduled for a follow-up testing session to further assess the relationship between these behaviors and measures of affective distress. Compared to a control sample, the follow-up sample endorsed significantly more symptoms of anxiety and stress reactivity, and had higher scores on a measure of obsessive-compulsive symptoms.

完美主义及其认知-行为治疗研究

完美主义是一种深刻影响人格的心理特征,与心理病理学现象有极为密切的联系。完美主义已经引起了心理界的关注。从完美主义的定义出发,提出完美主义认知和行为特征,总结了完美主义的评估方法及完美主义与心理障碍的关系研究,最后对完美主义的认知-行为治疗的方法和步骤进行了阐述。     

高强迫症状个体对图片刺激的注意偏向

以往强迫症注意偏向研究呈现出不一致的结果。为探索研究结果的不一致性是否由于被试取样和刺激选择所导致,当前研究改用非临床强迫症状个体作为研究对象,采用图片作为刺激来引发被试的反应和脑电波的变化。研究采用2(高强迫症状组、低强迫症状组)×3(中性图片、一般威胁图片和强迫相关图片)的混合实验设计,因变量为反应时和相关的脑电成分,结果显示:高强迫症状组较低强迫症状组对强迫相关图片表现出了更大幅度的P2波幅的变化。从而可以推断出,高强迫症状个体对强迫相关图片表现出了明显的注意偏向,其成分为注意脱困,主要发生在早期自动化加工阶段。     

Perfectionism and causal attributions: An experience sampling approach

The primary aim of the study was to examine whether dimensions of perfectionism—socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP) and self-oriented perfectionism (SOP)—were related to causal attributions, and to what extent event-specific attributions about social interactions were related to mood. Experience sampling methodology was used to examine event-specific attributions about negative social interactions and mood in daily life. SPP and SOP had different relationships with trait attributional styles. Although neither SPP nor SOP were related to event-specific attributions, SOP moderated the covariation of negative attributions and sadness: higher scores on SOP were associated with a stronger relation between negative attributions and sadness. Additionally, SPP was positively related to the proportion of negative social interactions.     

Dimensions of Perfectionism and Anxiety Sensitivity

The current study investigated the extent to which dimensions of perfectionism are associated with components of the anxiety sensitivity construct. A sample of 177 undergraduate students completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory, the Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Scale, and the Expanded Anxiety Sensitivity Index developed by Taylor and Cox (1998). The results confirmed that automatic thoughts involving perfectionism and the interpersonal aspects of the perfectionism construct are associated with anxiety sensitivity. Examination of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index factors showed that perfectionism cognitions were associated primarily with anxiety sensitivity involving fears of cognitive dyscontrol, while socially prescribed perfectionism and perfectionistic self-presentation were associated primarily with fears of publicly observable anxiety reactions in a manner suggesting that the interpersonal perfectionism dimensions are linked closely with an anxious sensitivity to negative social evaluation and subsequent panic attacks. The theoretical and treatment implications of the link between perfectionism and anxiety sensitivity are discussed.     

Measuring Change in OCD: Sensitivity of the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised

This study examined the sensitivity to change and specificity of response of the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised (OCI-R), an 18-item self-report measure of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) severity. Seventy-seven OCD patients received cognitive-behavioral therapy incorporating exposure and response prevention (ERP). Change from pre- to posttest on the OCI-R was compared to changes as assessed by the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) and other measures of OCD and related symptoms. Results suggest the OCI-R is sensitive to treatment effects and that pre- to posttest change on this instrument reflects improvement in OCD and related symptoms of depression, anxiety, and global functioning. The OCI-R was not sensitive to improvement in patients’ insight into the senselessness of their OCD symptoms. The OCI-R appears suitable for use in clinical settings and naturalistic outcome studies where time and resources do not permit administration of lengthy symptom interviews.     

积极完美主义的调节作用研究

本研究以抑郁、焦虑为心理健康的消极指标,以自尊、生活满意度为心理健康的积极指标,探讨积极完美主义对消极完美主义与心理健康的调节作用。结果表明,积极完美主义的调节作用显著,表现为高积极完美主义条件下,消极完美主义与四个心理健康指标之间的联系更为密切,说明高积极完美主义增强了消极完美主义对心理健康的影响,低积极完美主义能缓冲消极完美主义对心理健康的影响。     

心理障碍与完美主义关系的研究进展

国外对心理障碍与完美主义的关系研究集中在进食障碍、焦虑障碍、强迫障碍、社交恐惧和抑郁等领域。研究表明,完美主义是导致心理障碍的原因之一,但并非所有的完美主义或者完美主义的所有维度都会导致心理障碍。     

强迫症诊断研究的新变化

临床实践与相关研究表明,强迫症的诊断标准已不能满足复杂的临床工作需要。首先,有关患者的自知力以及主观痛苦程度等诊断指标需要进一步修订。其次,就强迫症的核心症状而产生的争议,研究者提出应重新考虑强迫症、焦虑障碍、强迫谱系障碍和囤积障碍这四个概念之间的从属关系和诊断标准。未来研究应考虑从认知神经科学的视角探索强迫症的核心症状和病理机制,为强迫症的诊断标准提供新的依据。     

Perfectionism and multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI) indices of personality disorder

The present research tested the hypothesis that personal and social aspects of the perfectionism construct are related differentially to indices of personality disorders. A sample of 90 psychiatric patients was examined with respect to their scores on the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and the personality disorder subscales (PDS) of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. The MPS provides measures of self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism, whereas the PDS assess levels of various personality disorder symptoms. Zero-order and partial correlations indicated that the perfectionism dimensions of the MPS were related to various subscales of the PDS and, perhaps more importantly, that the findings vary as a function of the perfectionism dimension in question. The results are discussed in terms of the importance of perfectionism in personality disorder symptom patterns.     

A Neuropsychological Investigation of Perfectionism

Perfectionism entails a burdensome preoccupation with one’s self-evaluation in the context of performance outcomes. Although perfectionism has been subject to extensive research, scant literature on its effect on cognitive functioning is available, let alone in nonclinical populations. The aim of the present study is to utilize a comprehensive neuropsychological battery to assess cognitive functions among college students with high and low levels of perfectionism. Participants were 98 college students who were screened for clinical status, completed a neuropsychological battery, and assessed for perfectionism and related symptomatology. Results revealed that the high negative perfectionism group had significantly higher levels of depression and stress compared to the low negative perfectionism group. However, no group differences were found across neuropsychological outcomes. Gradient differences on clinical outcome measures were found when three groups characterized by high adaptive, high maladaptive, and mixed perfectionism were compared. However, no differences were found on neuropsychological tests. These findings suggest that higher levels of negative perfectionism are associated with significant psychopathological burden, but with intact neuropsychological test performance. These results are important, particularly in the context of the need to identify and treat students struggling with high levels of perfectionism and related psychopathological burden, which can be overlooked given that they present with intact cognitive and academic performance.     

Multidimensional Perfectionism and Anxiety: Differences Among Individuals With Perfectionism and Tests of a Coping‐Mediation Model

This study examined the relationship between adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism, anxiety, and coping processes in a sample of 329 undergraduate students. Specifically, participants with adaptive perfectionism had the lowest levels of anxiety, followed by participants with nonperfectionism, and participants with maladaptive perfectionism had the highest levels. Various coping processes mediating the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and anxiety are discussed.     

Dimensions of Perfectionism, Unconditional Self-Acceptance, and Depression

The current research investigated the associations among dimensions of perfectionism, unconditional self-acceptance, and self-reported depression. A sample of 94 students completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, the Unconditional Self-Acceptance Questionnaire, and a self-report depression measure. Correlational results indicated that all three trait dimensions of perfectionism (i.e., self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism) were associated negatively with unconditional self-acceptance. Also, as expected, depression was associated with relatively low unconditional self-acceptance. Finally, a path analysis revealed that unconditional self-acceptance mediated the association between socially prescribed perfectionism and depression, and other-oriented perfectionism was found to affect depression only indirectly through its association with low levels of self-acceptance. The findings indicate that perfectionists evaluate themselves in terms of a contingent sense of self-worth, and as such, they are vulnerable to psychological distress when they experience negative events that do not affirm their self-worth.     

Perfectionism and its relationship with anticipatory processing in social anxiety

Cognitive‐behavioural models suggest that perfectionistic beliefs and anticipatory processing are key maintaining factors of social anxiety. The present study examined the moderating and mediating role that anticipatory processing has on the relationship between perfectionism and social anxiety. The sample consisted of 245 individuals from the general community who completed an online questionnaire package comprising depression, perfectionism, and social anxiety measures. Participants also rated their levels of anticipatory processing in response to vignettes describing an upcoming social interaction and performance situation. Results showed that maladaptive perfectionism and maladaptive anticipatory processing were positively associated with social anxiety. Furthermore, maladaptive anticipatory processes (stagnant deliberation and outcome fantasy) remained significantly and positively associated with social anxiety even after controlling for depression and maladaptive perfectionism, whereas adaptive anticipatory processes (plan rehearsal and problem analysis) were not significantly associated with social anxiety. These findings support current classifications of anticipatory processing in social anxiety. Contrary to predictions, maladaptive anticipatory processing did not moderate the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and social anxiety. An exploratory analysis indicated that maladaptive anticipatory processing mediated the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and social anxiety. Implications for therapeutic intervention are discussed.     

Adaptive and Maladaptive Perfectionism,Adult Attachment,and Big Five Personality Traits

The author examined the role of anxiety and avoidance dimensions of attachment and Big Five personality traits in adaptive and maladaptive dimensions of perfectionism among 604 (377 male, 227 female) Turkish university students. The results of 2 separate multiple regression analyses yielded that adaptive perfectionism was significantly predicted by conscientiousness, openness, and extraversion. Maladaptive perfectionism was significantly predicted by the neuroticism, anxiety, and avoidance dimensions of attachment. The authors discuss the implications, limitations, and future directions for research.     

Perfectionism and Deficits in Cognitive Emotion Regulation

The current study investigated the general hypothesis that perfectionists have deficits in cognitive emotion regulation. A sample of 100 students completed the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory, the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ), and a measure of depression. Correlational analyses revealed that frequent thoughts involving perfectionism were associated with maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation tendencies, including catastrophization, self-blame, rumination, and lack of positive reappraisal. Socially prescribed perfectionism was associated with the maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies of self-blame, catastrophization, and rumination, and it was correlated negatively with the adaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies of putting into perspective and positive reappraisal. Trait self-oriented perfectionism was linked with self-blame. As expected, higher levels of depression were associated with perfectionism cognitions, socially prescribed perfectionism and deficits in cognitive emotion regulation. Our findings suggest the need for interventions designed to bolster the cognitive coping skills of at-risk perfectionists. This research was supported by a major research grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada. Gordon Flett was also supported by a Canada Research Chair in Personality and Health.