A procedure for studying echoic control in verbal behavior

Male and female college students answered standard questions about the women's liberation movement on three occasions. A set of target words was embedded in the questions, with one set used in Sessions 1 and 3, and a synonymous, but different set used in Session 2. The relative frequencies of usage of a given target word were directly related to whether the questions for that session contained the word. The results supported the hypothesis of echoics as proposed in Skinner's theory of verbal behavior.     

Peer reinforcement control of classroom problem behavior

Peer and teacher interactions with five "disruptive" children were studied in an elementary school classroom. The intent of the study was to analyze experimentally peer reinforcement control of the disruptive children's problem behaviors. Social attention provided by all peers was found to be directed exclusively to the problem behaviors during baseline. Following baseline, several manipulations of selected peer social attention demonstrated the reinforcement function of this stimulus class.     

Delayed timeout as a procedure for reducing disruptive classroom behavior: a case study

The disruptive behavior of a 9-yr-old boy was eliminated by the illumination of a light on the subject's desk, which represented the loss of free time later in the day. Instructions alone failed to reduce the frequency of disruptive behavior. When the light was removed and disruptive behavior no longer resulted in a loss of free time, disruptive behavior returned to its previous level.     

A simple stimulus cue for controlling disruptive classroom behavior

In two separate classrooms, a red light which had no specific consequences attached was used to reduce the talking-out and out-of-seat behavior of elementary school subjects. Following baseline phases, the light was introduced for a one-week period. An observer activated the light whenever the targeted behaviors occurred. Following a return to baseline, the light was reintroduced for a second one-week period. Results indicated that for both subjects a 95% or greater reduction in targeted behaviors occurred during the red-light phases. The results demonstrated the short-term effectiveness of a simple procedure which does not require specific back-up consequences for the reduction of disruptive behavior. The author concluded that studies using stimulus cues as part of reward or punishment procedures should employ a baseline procedure which controls for the effect of the stimulus cue without specific back-up consequences.This work was supported by Grant No. MH-18966 from the National Institute of Mental Health to Roberta Ray, Oregon Research Institute. The author is indebted to Roberta Ray, Oregon Research Institute, for her advice and support and to Paul Randall, Eugene Public Schools, for his assistance in conducting this research. Data reported in this article were collected as part of a study examining the effect of observer- and self-operated discriminative stimuli in the control of disruptive behavior. A complete copy of the report is available from the author.     

A titration procedure for generating escape behavior

In a grid-shock escape paradigm using time-out as reinforcement, both fixed-ratio and variable-interval performances were established directly from a continuous reinforcement schedule with rats and guinea pigs. A procedure was developed that employed a stepwise decrease in reinforcement time for all responses except the terminal response. Acquisition and long-term maintenance data were obtained from Ss trained on this titrated negative-reinforcement procedure.     

A portable device for group modification of classroom attending behavior

There is a need for a portable means of signalling appropriate classroom behavior that the teacher can carry with her as she moves about the room. An inexpensive wireless switch, adapted for classroom use, was used to turn on a clock when all children were attending to their work. When a movie was made contingent on accumulating a specific number of minutes on the clock, class-attending increased. Throughout these conditions, the records of class attending made by an independent observer with a stopwatch correlated highly with the remote controlled clock.     

The control of "classroom attention": a group contingency for complex behavior

Cumulative time measures of classroom attention, as delineated by the teacher, were taken of four elementary classes (kindergarten, third, fifth, and sixth grades) and of 16 randomly chosen students in these same classes. Each class of students was viewed as an individual responding organism. Base rates showed considerable variability. Explicit instructions alone concerning student attention produced temporary increase for some students and for some grades. Adding group contingencies (i.e., contingencies dependent on the attention of every student in the class) and token-mediated reinforcement to class achievement of a gradually increasing attention criterion raised group measures to a consistent 70 to 85% level of time attending to task as instructed, and raised individual student measures to a stable 90 to 100% level. Reversals and other data indicate that the elementary teacher can, by herself and with little effort, maximize what she considers the "paying-attention behavior" of all her students by her less-than-precise measure and consequation of the attention of the class as a whole.     

Cognitive self-instruction for the control of impulsive classroom behavior: Ensuring the treatment package

The practical utility of cognitive self-instruction training in facilitating the work habits and academic performance of impulsive first-graders was assessed in the context of the regular classroom. The training paradigm was modified and environmental conditions were arranged to facilitate the transfer of the cognitive self-instruction strategy to the classroom. Following training, there were no significant increases in on-task behavior or in academic performance within the context of a group design. On the basis of this and other studies, a drastic revision of the cognitive self-instruction paradigm seems indicated. Not only must training become broader based, but models must be developed that take into account the requisite cognitive processes for task completion as well as the cognitive abilities of the youngsters to whom training is addressed. In general, the incorporation of information from the developmental and cognitive process literature would appear to facilitate the development of more effective training models.     

A computerized test of self-control predicts classroom behavior

We assessed choices on a computerized test of self-control (CTSC) for a group of children with features of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and a group of controls. Thirty boys participated in the study. Fifteen of the children had been rated by their parents as hyperactive and inattentive, and 15 were age- and gender-matched controls in the same classroom. The children were observed in the classroom for three consecutive mornings, and data were collected on their activity levels and attention. The CTSC consisted of two tasks. In the delay condition, children chose to receive three rewards after a delay of 60 s or one reward immediately. In the task-difficulty condition, the children chose to complete a difficult math problem and receive three rewards or complete an easier problem for one reward. The children with ADHD features made more impulsive choices than their peers during both conditions, and these choices correlated with measures of their activity and attention in the classroom.     

Generality of test-session observations to kindergarteners' classroom behavior

Test observations are integral components in the comprehensive assessment of children's academic talents and personal adjustment. They are used to validate standardized test scores obtained during test sessions and to draw inferences about children's general pattern of learning and social adjustment. Unfortunately, little empirical justification exists for extending inferences beyond the confines of test sessions. This issue was examined with 155 kindergarten children using the Stanford Binet Observation Schedule (SBOS), a popular instrument for the summative integration of test-session observations. Children's ratings on the SBOS were used to estimate teacher-observed behavior on the Guide to the Child's Learning Style (GCLS). SBOS and GCLS scores were subjected to independent principal components analyses with varimax rotation and, thereafter, to a joint canonical variance analysis. Weighted factor composites from two SBOS dimensions constituted the predictor data set and three GCLS dimensions the criterion data set. Although multivariate statistical significance was achieved (=.834, F (6, 200)=3.18, p<.005), cannonical redundancy showed merely 9.4% of classroom behavior predictable from test-session. Results are examined in light of research on the situational specificity of behavior.The authors gratefully acknowledge Gema Barkanic for her assistance with the data analysis.     

A behavioral approach to the control of thumbsucking in the classroom

The purpose of the present study was to determine whether classroom thumbsucking could be controlled by making social reinforcement contingent upon appropriate behaviors incompatible with thumbsucking. The classroom thumbsucking behavior of three 8-yr-old elementary school children was observed and recorded by two observers. Sixteen experimental lessons were divided into sets of baseline, reinforcement, reversal, and representation of reinforcement. The effect of the experimental treatment was determined by the changes in the total thumbsucking level for each subject during each lesson. Results indicated noticeable decreases in thumbsucking rate for all three subjects during lessons in which social reinforcement was made contingent upon appropriate behavior. Two of the three subjects showed sudden increases in thumbsucking time during lessons when social reinforcement for appropriate responses was withheld; the third subject showed continued low thumbsucking time during these lessons.     

The effect of a fading procedure upon the acquisition of control by an overshadowed auditory feature

Pigeons' key-pecking responses were reinforced in the presence of a compound stimulus that consisted of an auditory feature (a tone) and a visual feature (a light) and non-reinforced in the presence of a compound stimulus that was either a noise and a dark key, or noise and a light. In the condition where reinforcement trials differed from non-reinforcement trials on the basis of both auditory and visual features, the tone exerted very little control over responding on test. In the condition where reinforcement differed from non-reinforcement trials solely on the basis of the auditory features, an abrupt and a gradual introduction of the visual feature of the negative stimulus, a light, were compared for their effect upon control in the compounds. The tone acquired strong control in both cases. Evidence indicated that the tone had acquired control in the gradual condition without the occurrence of responses to the negative stimulus. An incidental finding was that when the negative stimulus consisted of a noise and a light, which was introduced abruptly, responding over the light dimension with tone, on test, was peaked at a point other than that light value used as positive and negative during training.     

A precise and valid measure of behavior and behavior change in the classroom

A method for the direct and continuous observation of behavior as it occurs in the natural environment (classroom) is suggested as an alternative to individual testing and other observational techniques, especially those which use predetermined time segments and chart behavior in percentages. The method-behavior rates-using a base of movements per minute is seen as increasing the information obtained per unit of assessment time and providing daily, accurate feedback concerning the efficacy of a behavioral strategy.     

A comparison of response cost and differential reinforcement of other behavior to reduce disruptive behavior in a preschool classroom

This study investigated the effectiveness of response cost and differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) in reducing the disruptive behaviors of 25 children in a preschool classroom. Using an alternating treatments design, disruptive behavior was reduced when the participants earned tokens for the absence of disruptive behavior (DRO) or lost tokens for the occurrence of disruptive behavior (response cost). Initially, DRO was more successful in reducing the number of disruptive behaviors; however, over time, response cost proved to be more effective.     

Free-time as a consequence for behavior in classroom settings: A critical review

Osborne (1969) presented adolescent hearing impaired students with five minutes of free- time contingent upon remaining seated for 15 minutes in the classroom. This procedure substantially reduced the frequency of out- of- seat behavior. Since the publication of this seminal work, 49 studies have used free- time as a consequence to change behavior. This review critically examines these 49 studies. The review shows that free-time has been used effectively with a variety of different behaviors and student populations, and with different methods of delivery. Based on a synthesis of information from the review, optimal methods for the use of free-time are suggested. Finally, it is concluded that additional research is needed, especially to answer the question of why free-time is effective.