上司地位知觉对下属默契的影响——反馈寻求行为和观点采择的作用

下属默契指的是下属与上司间不经言传而暗相投合的状态,它能潜移默化地提升下属绩效。因此,探讨下属默契的产生原因,对组织有着重要意义。鉴于此,本文以目标动机模型为理论基础,探讨了上司地位知觉对下属默契的影响及其内部机制。通过对186名企业员工的调查分析发现,上司地位知觉对下属默契有显著的正向影响;反馈寻求行为在此过程中起部分中介作用;此外,下属的观点采择能力调节了反馈寻求行为与下属默契间的正向关系。     

仁慈领导与员工创新行为:内部人身份感知的中介作用和领导-部属交换关系差异化的调节作用

探究仁慈领导与员工创新行为的关系,以及在该关系中内部人身份感知的中介作用和领导-部属交换关系差异化的调节作用。以68名主管和215名员工为对象,通过对两阶段主管-员工配对调查所获取的数据进行分析,结果表明:(1)仁慈领导可以借助内部人身份感知的中介作用,对员工创新行为产生积极的影响;(2)领导-部属交换关系差异化能调节仁慈领导和内部人身份感知的关系,即当关系差异化水平越高,仁慈领导与内部人身份感知之间的正向关系越强;(3)领导-部属交换关系差异化能调节内部人身份感知在仁慈领导与员工创新行为关系间的中介作用,表现为被调节的中介作用模式,即领导-部属交换关系差异化水平越高,仁慈领导与员工创新行为之间通过内部人身份感知的间接关系越强。     

The role of subordinate authoritarianism in cross-level extra-role relationships

This study is an investigation of the moderating role of subordinate authoritarianism in the relationship between cross-level (i.e., supervisor and subordinate) extrarole (i.e., outside of work) activities and job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behaviors. Low authoritarian subordinates reported greater job satisfaction than high authoritarian subordinates when they participated in off-the-job activities with supervisors. The implications of this research are discussed.     

Accounting for subordinate perceptions of supervisor power: an identity-dependence model

The authors present a model that explains how subordinates perceive the power of their supervisors and the causal mechanisms by which these perceptions translate into subordinate outcomes. Drawing on identity and resource-dependence theories, the authors propose that supervisors have power over their subordinates when they control resources needed for the subordinates' enactment and maintenance of current and desired identities. The joint effect of perceptions of supervisor power and supervisor intentions to provide such resources leads to 4 conditions ranging from highly functional to highly dysfunctional: confirmation, hope, apathy, and progressive withdrawal. Each of these conditions is associated with specific outcomes such as the quality of the supervisor-subordinate relationship, turnover, and changes in the type and centrality of various subordinate identities.     

Supported Supervisors Are More Supportive,but Why? A Multilevel Study of Mechanisms and Outcomes

This study examines organizational support theory as it extends to supervisor support by (1) testing two explanations for the relationship between supervisors’ perceived organizational support and their supportive supervision and (2) examining perceived supervisor support in relation to subordinate performance and commitment. Multisource survey data from a correctional facility, with a matched sample of 51 supervisors and 283 subordinates, were collected. Multilevel structural equation modeling was used for analysis. Supervisors were more supportive when they felt supportive treatment was preferred by the organization and less supportive when they felt obligated to help the organization. Perceived supervisor support was associated with subordinate performance and commitment at the subordinate level (i.e., among employees reporting to the same supervisor) but not at the supervisor level (i.e., across supervisor-follower groups). Employees who feel supported by their supervisor perform better and are more committed to their employer. To encourage supervisor support, organizations should both model support to supervisors and communicate the expectation for supervisor support. Supervisors who feel obligated to reciprocate to a supportive organization may be less inclined to support their subordinates. This study examines the prevailing, yet untested, mechanism (felt obligation) used to explain the relationship between supervisor’s perceptions of organizational support and their supportive supervision, as well as an alternative explanation based on social information processing. The study provides a nuanced multilevel analysis of perceived supervisor support as related to subordinate outcomes and extends previous models by including subordinate withdrawal and commitment.     

Supervisor Appraisal as the Link Between Family–Work Balance and Contextual Performance

We examined the relationship between subordinates’ family to work balance (conflict and enrichment) and two dimensions of contextual performance (interpersonal facilitation and job dedication) reported by supervisors. Beyond the direct effects, we hypothesized that supervisor’s appraisals of employee conflict and enrichment would influence the supervisor’s contextual performance ratings. Data collected from a matched sample of 156 private sector employees and their supervisors indicated that the supervisor’s performance ratings were impacted by the supervisor’s appraisal of enrichment. However, the supervisor’s appraisal of conflict only mattered for interpersonal facilitation. There was a direct effect of subordinate’s conflict on both dimensions of contextual performance.     

下属越轨创新对主管阻抑的影响——地位威胁感和权威主义取向的作用

主管阻抑作为一种相对隐蔽的负性领导行为,会潜移默化地削弱下属的绩效表现。有鉴于此,探索主管阻抑的发生机制,能够帮助我们更好地预防主管阻抑。本研究基于125份两时间点的上下级配对数据,探讨了下属越轨创新对主管阻抑的影响机理。结果表明:下属越轨创新会诱发主管阻抑,主管的地位威胁感在此过程中起部分中介作用;此外,主管权威主义取向对下属越轨创新与地位威胁感之间的正向关系具有显著的强化效应。     

规则适应视角下辱虐管理的成因机制

基于规则适应及资源依赖理论的解释视角,本研究考察了下属工作绩效与政治技能对上级辱虐的影响。通过对采集自两家企业的243对领导-下属的配对问卷进行分析,本研究的多项式回归与响应面分析表明,当下属的工作绩效(遵循做事显规则)与政治技能(遵循做人潜规则)在较高水平上保持一致时,其遭受的上级辱虐最少。但这种较高水平的一致只能维持在特定范围内,当两者过高时,反而易遭致上级的辱虐行为。同时,在工作绩效与政治技能存在差异的情境下,相比于"高工作绩效,低政治技能"的下属,"低工作绩效,高政治技能"的下属遭受的上级辱虐要更少。文章分析并证明了遵循不同规则的下属会导致不同程度的上级辱虐。     

Extending the metatheoretical framework of social/political influence to leadership: Political skill effects on situational appraisals,responses, and evaluations by others

Building off and extending the metatheoretical framework of political skill, we examined the cognitive and behavioral mechanisms through which the intrapsychic effects of political skill inform its interpersonal effects, and how these interpersonal effects ultimately are transmitted into desirable outcomes. Specifically, we argue that politically skilled leaders demonstrate better situational appraisals (i.e., understanding), and thus, more appropriate situational responses (e.g., consideration and initiating structure behaviors); the demonstration of appropriate situational responses is argued to positively affect subordinates’ evaluations of their leaders (i.e., instrumentality) and subordinates’ concomitant attitudes (e.g., job satisfaction) and behaviors (e.g., performance). Results provided mixed support for the hypothesized relationships. Specifically, leader understanding mediated the relationship between political skill and consideration but not the relationship between political skill and structuring behaviors. Moreover, consideration was positively related to subordinates’ group-level instrumentality perceptions, whereas initiating structure was not. Finally, subordinates’ individual (within-level) perceptions of leader instrumentality were positively related to job satisfaction and performance. The implications of these findings as they relate to theory and practice are discussed along with this investigation's strengths, limitations, and directions for future research.     

上下级工作场所精神性匹配与下级主动行为的关系

基于上下级匹配理论,本研究探讨了上下级工作场所精神性匹配与下级主动行为的关系。采用多项式回归与响应面分析技术,对收集的129对“领导者?员工”配对数据进行分析,结果表明：（1）在上下级工作场所精神性一致的情况下,上下级工作场所精神性一致程度与下级主动行为呈倒U型关系;（2）在上下级工作场所精神性不一致的情况下,当下级工作场所精神性高于上级时,下级会表现出更多的主动行为。     

Emotions running high: Examining the effects of supervisor and subordinate emotional stability on emotional exhaustion

We sought to better understand the impact of leader emotional stability on follower burnout. Drawing on conservation of resources theory, we examined the emotional exhaustion consequences of supervisor-subordinate emotional stability congruence. Study 1 consisted of 299 light construction and maintenance workers and their supervisors. Study 2 was comprised of 294 workers at a city permits office and their supervisors. As hypothesized, both samples revealed that the highest levels of subordinate emotional exhaustion occurred when both supervisor and subordinate emotional stability were low. Our polynomial regression results suggest that the effects of leader and follower emotional stability are not simply a matter of similarity; subordinates low in emotional stability are disproportionately and negatively impacted by a low-emotional stability leader.     

Effects of leader sex,subordinate sex,and subordinate performance on the use of influence strategies

The study examined the effects of leader sex, subordinate sex, and subordinate performance on leaders' use of influence strategies. Forty-two male and 42 female engineering undergraduates participated in role-playing situations. Relative to females, males reported a greater likelihood of using such influence strategies as negative sanction, assertiveness, reward, and exchange. In general, subjects tended to employ more of negative sanction and assertiveness and less of reward and exchange when dealing with poorly performing subordinates than with well-performing subordinates. While the subordinate sex had little impact, few interactions were noted. Implications of these findings both for those in leadership roles and for future research are discussed.An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Australian Bicentennial Meeting of Social Psychologists at Leura Bluemountains, Australia, August 1988. I thank Managal Dev, S. Pal, A. K. Tripathi, and Sanjay Tripathi for their help in collecting the data. I also extend my gratitude to an anonymous reviewer, and to Bijoy Boruah and Kanika Tandon for helpful comments.     

Reward behavior by male and female leaders: A causal inference analysis

This research investigated causal inferences between leader reward behavior (positive and punitive) and subordinate goal attainment, absenteeism, and work satisfaction over a 3-month period in a merchandise distribution center (n = 252). Four groups were studied: (a) male supervisors-male subordinates, (b) male supervisors-female subordinates, (c) female supervisors-female subordinates, and (d) female supervisors-male subordinates. Using the techniques of tests of mean differences and corrected cross-lag correlations, the results revealed that: (a) No significant differences attributed to sex were found between the four groups with the perceptions of leader reward behavior or subordinate outcome measures, and (b) the causal inference analysis suggested that the relationships between leader reward behavior and subordinate attitudes and behavior were independent of the effects of sex of supervisor or subordinate. Implications for research on sex stereotypes and leadership were discussed.     

Masculinity,status, and subordination: Why working for a gender stereotype violator causes men to lose status

Occupying gender stereotype-incongruent roles can lead individuals to lose status and earn a lower salary. The present research examined whether merely working for a supervisor in a gender-atypical occupational role leads a subordinate to lose status. Two studies found that male subordinates of gender deviants (i.e., a female supervisor in a masculine domain or a male supervisor in a feminine domain) were accorded lower status and were paid less than male subordinates of supervisors in gender-congruent roles (i.e., a female supervisor in a feminine domain or a male supervisor in a masculine domain). However, the status of female subordinates was unaffected by working for a gender atypical supervisor. Moreover, the status loss for male subordinates was mediated by a perceived lack of masculinity. Thus, establishing the male subordinate's masculine credentials eliminated the bias.     

Can opposites attract? Personality heterogeneity in supervisor-subordinate dyads as a predictor of subordinate outcomes

Unlike the majority of research hypothesizing that similarity between individuals results in positive individual outcomes, this article examines whether dissimilarity results in positive outcomes. On the basis of interpersonal interaction theory, the authors hypothesized that dissimilarity in the personality dimension of control within supervisor-subordinate dyads is positively associated with the subordinate's satisfaction with the supervisor; results obtained with polynomial regression techniques were supportive. However, for 2 other outcomes, organizational citizenship behaviors and work withdrawal, neither similarity nor dissimilarity within the dyad was important; subordinate level of control was related to organizational citizenship behaviors reported by subordinates, and supervisor level of control was related to work withdrawal reported by subordinates. These findings portray the importance of examining relationship complexities beyond similarity in organizational dyad research.     

The impact of political skill on impression management effectiveness

In this study, the authors investigated the effect of an individual's political skill on the relationships between 5 different impression management tactics (intimidation, exemplification, ingratiation, self-promotion, and supplication) and supervisor evaluations of performance. To test these relationships, the authors used a matched sample of 173 supervisor-subordinate dyads who worked full time in a state agency. Findings showed that individuals who used high levels of any of the tactics and who were politically skilled achieved more desirable supervisor ratings than did those who used the tactics but were not politically skilled. Opposite results were found when impression management usage was low. That is, individuals who were not politically skilled created a more desirable image in their supervisors' eyes than did their politically skilled counterparts when they did not use these tactics. Practical and research implications for the findings as well as directions for future research are offered.     

The Influence of Autonomy and Supervisor Political Skill on the Use and Consequences of Peer Intimidation in Organizations

Based on social influence theory, we develop a model in which the use of peer intimidation by Machiavellian employees results in greater promotability ratings by supervisors. However, consistent with interdependence theory, we expect that this process is qualified by job autonomy and the political skill of the supervisor making the promotability rating. Based on a sample of 204 supervisor–subordinate dyads, we find that peer intimidation mediates the Machiavellianism–promotability relationship when supervisor political skill is low rather than high, and when job autonomy is high rather than low, thereby yielding a pattern of moderated mediation, and supporting the hypotheses. These results suggest that job autonomy and supervisor political skill represent key interdependent mechanisms that regulate the effectiveness of social influence attempts made with intimidation in organizations.     

与领导关系好就能获得职业成功吗？一项调节的中介效应研究

采用结构化问卷, 在2个时点进行2轮问卷调查, 共收集到206份问卷。根据Edwards和Lambert (2007)推荐的程序, 检验了领导-部属交换与下属职业成功间的调节的中介效应模型。结果表明：(1)网络能力、人际影响、社会机敏性、外显真诚4种政治技能调节了领导-部属交换对下属职业成功的直接效应和总效应; (2)在上述4种政治技能的调节下, 心理授权在领导-部属交换与下属职业成功之间起着部分中介作用或完全中介作用; (3)人际影响调节了领导-部属交换对下属心理授权的作用, 外显真诚调节了心理授权对职业成功的作用。     

Different consequences of supplication and modesty: Self-effacing impression management behaviors and supervisory perceptions of subordinate personality

Although modesty and supplication are both self-effacing impression management behaviors for underplaying one’s strengths, they are likely to result in different supervisory perceptions. In an examination of the effects of modesty and supplication in the same working sample, the results from a Chinese sample of supervisor–subordinate dyads (n = 88) showed that while modesty is positively related to supervisor perceptions of a subordinate’s Agreeableness and Conscientiousness, supplication is negatively related to supervisory perceptions of Agreeableness. In addition, supervisors differentially weigh supplication and modesty when assessing Agreeableness versus Conscientiousness. Results from this study suggest that subordinates may use modesty to strive for a positive impression, but they should be cautious about adopting supplication as an impression management tactic.