Computer-based systems for applying psychological knowledge

Computer-based systems have long been seen as a means for applying psychological knowledge to instructing. However, from many years of research and development on instructional design and on using computers for instructing, we learned that the current instructional techniques are based on an inadequate scientific knowledge base and are poorly implemented. In order to do better, improved techniques based on modern cognitive science must be developed, and computer-based aids are needed to assist their application. Furthermore, a standardization and distribution system is needed to identify effective instructional programs and make them available. This seems especially important if we hope to have broad impact on education and training.     

Computer controlled interactive video simulation for motor skills research

Researchers examining skilled performance in the laboratory must establish contextual relevance to the usual performance environment to ensure that the obtained data truly reflect expertise in the skill under investigation. Interactive video simulation is a viable method for providing such ecological validity. This paper describes the development to date of such a simulator and outlines two sports-performance studies which demonstrate the validity and reliability of the configuration in competitive situations. Further development of the simulator is possible through new technologies and through the assembly of specific interfaces for other motor skills. The paradigm also has potential as a training resource for teaching the specific knowledge necessary for expert levels of performance.     

A device that provides an eye-to-eye video perspective for interactive television

A device that allows individuals to engage in eye contact while interacting over two-way television is described. The apparatus consists of a television monitor and low light-level television camera housed within a cabinet containing a mirror system that resembles a combination beam splitter and periscope. Through the mirror system, the pick-up camera captures a reflected full-face eye-level image of the television viewer as he or she attends to the display monitor. The device is particularly useful for studying the nonverbal communication patterns of individuals engaged in social interaction.     

The interactive evolution of human communication systems

This paper compares two explanations of the process by which human communication systems evolve: iterated learning and social collaboration. It then reports an experiment testing the social collaboration account. Participants engaged in a graphical communication task either as a member of a community, where they interacted with seven different partners drawn from the same pool, or as a member of an isolated pair, where they interacted with the same partner across the same number of games. Participants' horizontal, pair-wise interactions led "bottom up" to the creation of an effective and efficient shared sign system in the community condition. Furthermore, the community-evolved sign systems were as effective and efficient as the local sign systems developed by isolated pairs. Finally, and as predicted by a social collaboration account, and not by an iterated learning account, interaction was critical to the creation of shared sign systems, with different isolated pairs establishing different local sign systems and different communities establishing different global sign systems.     

Personalized interactive characters for toddlers' learning of seriation from a video presentation

Children's media is rooted in relationships with onscreen characters. In this study, 18-month-old toddlers were initially exposed to one of two unfamiliar interactive media characters for 3 months. Conditions varied whether the character was personalized to them or not. At age 21 months, toddlers were tested on a seriation task that was presented onscreen by the character and compared to the performance of a 21-month-old control group who did not view a video demonstration (total N = 48). Toddlers learned significantly more from the personalized character, but not from the non-personalized character, when compared to the control group. Children in the personalized condition also increased in parasocial, nurturing behaviors directed at the character during play sessions, and these scores were linked to better seriation performance. The results suggest an important role for social relationships with interactive characters to teach early seriation skills.     

Psychological performance assessment via interactive voice response systems

Two experiments examined the feasibility of psychological assessment using interactive voice response (IVR) technology and the potential sensitivity of such assessments to alcohol and fatigue effects. In Experiment 1, 10 subjects performed a 12-min battery of six IVR-administered tasks, Monday through Friday, over 2 weeks. Minimal learning effects were evident during training. Repeated administrations indicated high test-retest reliabilities. In Experiment 2 (double-blind, alcohol/placebo crossover design), 7 subjects were tested every 2 h over a 24-h period during two experimental sessions (peak blood alcohol concentrations =80 mg/dL). Several IVR-administered tasks were sensitive to alcohol impairment, but not as sensitive as laboratory-based measures specifically designed to assess alcohol impairment. Little evidence for fatigue-related impairment was obtained. The results support optimism for the potential to assess psychomotor and cognitive functioning distally via telephony; however, further refinement and validation of the methods are needed.     

Computer-based counsellor training

The use of computer-assisted instruction and simulation models of client or counsellor behaviour in counsellor training programmes is discussed. It is argued that computer-based training will increase the effectiveness and sophistication of counsellor training practices.     

Computer-based assessment of student-constructed responses

Student-constructed responses, such as essays, short-answer questions, and think-aloud protocols, provide a valuable opportunity to gauge student learning outcomes and comprehension strategies. However, given the challenges of grading student-constructed responses, instructors may be hesitant to use them. There have been major advances in the application of natural language processing of student-constructed responses. This literature review focuses on two dimensions that need to be considered when developing new systems. The first is type of response provided by the student-namely, meaning-making responses (e.g., think-aloud protocols, tutorial dialogue) and products of comprehension (e.g., essays, open-ended questions). The second corresponds to considerations of the type of natural language processing systems used and how they are applied to analyze the student responses. We argue that the appropriateness of the assessment protocols is, in part, constrained by the type of response and researchers should use hybrid systems that rely on multiple, convergent natural language algorithms.     

Computer-based career planning for adults

The Career Information and Planning System is described. Designed for officers of the United States Army, it is a computer-based counselling and guidance system which aims to enhance the career planning skills of adults.     

Computer-based automatic finger- and speech-tracking system

This article presents the first technology ever for online registration and interactive and automatic analysis of finger movements during tactile reading (Braille and tactile pictures). Interactive software has been developed for registration (with two cameras and a microphone), MPEG-2 video compression and storage on disk or DVD as well as an interactive analysis program to aid human analysis. An automatic finger-tracking system has been implemented which also semiautomatically tracks the reading aloud speech on the syllable level. This set of tools opens the way for large scale studies of blind people reading Braille or tactile images. It has been tested in a pilot project involving congenitally blind subjects reading texts and pictures.     

Optical and electronic systems for spatial and temporal analysis of video images

In this paper are described two systems for spatial (two-dimensional coordinates) and temporal analysis of video images. In the optical version, the Apple IIe generates a pointer on an Apple monitor; the pointer is then superimposed on the video image of a second video monitor, by reflecting the pointer with a half-silvered mirror. In the electronic version, a special card was designed for the Apple IIe to generate a pointer directly on the other video monitor. Both systems use the same software. The procedures of spatial and temporal data acquisition and storage are described as well as the reading, writing, printing, removing, listing, chaining, and dating operations of the digital and graphics files.     

International Applications of Computer-based Testing and Interpretation

The computer has been used to administer, score and interpret psychological tests in a number of countries throughout the world. This paper traces early work in the United States, Great Britain and continental Europe and reviews the current international status of computer-assisted psychological testing. Several problems with transporting existing computer-based psychological testing technology across languages and cultures are discussed.
Les ordinateurs sont utilisés pour administrer, noter et interpréter les tests psychologiques dans un certain nombre de pays du monde entier. Cet article évoque les travaux réalisés aux Etats-Unis, en Grande Bretagne et en Europe Occidentale, et passe en revue les données du courant international en la matière. Plusieurs problèmes technologiques sont soulevés par la diffusion de ces tests, notamment sur les plans du langage et de la culture.     

Computer-based preference models for generic multidimensional problem sets

Alternative actions or objects can be characterized by differences among defining attributes or dimensions. Making choices among these alternatives is often a complex and difficult task, particularly when the number of alternatives or defining attributes is large or the time to decide is limited. This paper describes two programs that allow users to define a multidimensional problem domain and derive a multiplicative utility function that quantitatively describes their judgment policy within that domain. It also discusses potential applications for the derived preference models.     

Computer-based instruction and the practical aspects of memory

This article examines the relationship between basic memory research and computer-based instruction (CBI). The results of basic memory research have helped determine the current directions of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) research and development. These directions have included examining the utility of such learning systems for facilitating memory outcomes and developing CBI systems based on cognitive instructional principles. Examples of such systems include the emerging generation of hypermedia and artificial tutoring systems. Inconclusive results, however, have been found regarding CBI's effects on memroy phenomena. The CBI literature has thus not established the utility of any memory theory for naturally occurring phenomena. Several plausible reasons for this “null finding” are discussed.     

On Probabilistic Computer-based Test Interpretations and Other Expert Systems

Computer-based test interpretation (C.B.T.I.) reports are becoming well established in psychology. To date, most C.B.T.I. reports have been focused on selecting the correct global paragraph to apply to a given client. An alternative approach is to use C.B.T.I. services to provide highly technical and sophisticated statistical summaries of the individual client's responses. Such summaries can be tests of major hypotheses about the individual client resulting in probabilistic statements about the likelihood of a client being a member of a group or being accurately described by the statement. Such probabilistic C.B.T.I. reports may represent a major contribution to the individual clinician's tool-kit.
Les compte-rendus ďinterprétation des tests utilisant les ordinateurs (C.B.T.I.) sont un fait bien établi en psychologic Jusqu'à cette date, la phipart ďentre eux se centraient sur le choix de la séquence globale correcteà appliquer a un client donné. Une alternative consiste à utiliser les services du C.B.T.I. pour obtenir des résumés de réponses de clients hautement techniques et sophistiqués sur le plan statistique. De tels résumés peuvent fournir des hypothèses majeures sur un client, en apportant des données probabilistes sur sa participation à un groupe ou sur des détails précis du rapport. Ce genre de compte-rendus probabilistes C.B.T.I. pourraient représenter une contribution majeure à la panoplie du clinicien.