The Association Between Self-Control and Hoarding: A Case Report

The capacity to exert control over one's behavior is known as self-control, and this ability to self-regulate is a necessary component for directing personal behavior toward achieving a specific goal. Baumeister and colleagues have suggested that self-control operates within a resource model such that an individual may strengthen this resource through directed practice. Hoarding is one syndrome wherein self-control may play a substantial role. Within a translational research framework, two separate case studies sought to determine if practicing self-control in a non-hoarding-related domain might have an impact on an individual's hoarding symptoms and their readiness for treatment. Two individuals diagnosed with hoarding were enrolled in a self-control practice condition. Both self-control levels and hoarding symptoms were measured at pre– and post–time points using self-report and behavioral indices. Findings in support of a favorable effect of self-control on mitigating behavioral hoarding symptoms were mixed, with 1 patient experiencing marked improvement in symptoms and the other not. We also found that self-control practice was associated with both increased motivation for treatment and overall level of self-awareness. The implications of self-control for hoarding are discussed from a disease-reduction and prevention standpoint, along with the role self-control might play within more traditional cognitive behavioral interventions.     

自我损耗促进冒险行为

基于自我控制资源模型,本研究探讨了自我损耗对冒险行为的影响以及生理能量补充在其中的缓解作用。实验1和实验2分别通过“Stroop”和“非利手写作”任务操纵被试的自我损耗,两个实验均用气球模拟风险决策任务考察被试的冒险行为,并且通过摄入含有或不含有葡萄糖的柠檬水来操纵生理能量水平。结果发现,在排除无关变量后,高损耗者比低损耗者尽可能多地对气球进行充气以寻求奖赏(实验1和实验2),但饮用含葡萄糖的柠檬水能够有效降低这种反应(实验2)。该研究证实了自我损耗促进冒险行为,补充生理能量能有效缓解该效应。     

Depletion Influences Restraint,But Does It Influence Conflict Identification? Expanding on Osgood and Muraven (2015)

In their 2015 article, Osgood and Muraven showed that cognitive depletion reduces prosocial behaviors but not prosocial attitudes. We expand on the authors’ interpretation by relating their results to recent theorizing on the relationship between prosocial behavior and self-control. This framework distinguishes between the proclivity to identify self-control conflict and the capacity to exercise restraint. Osgood and Muraven's findings can be interpreted as evidence that cognitive depletion in social contexts fails to influence a necessary condition for identifying self-control conflict. However, the results do not yet allow us to conclude that depletion influences capacity to exercise restraint. Further work is needed to understand the mechanisms by which cognitive depletion influences prosocial behavior.     

Rude and inappropriate: the role of self-control in following social norms

Following social norms to avoid deviant or socially inappropriate behavior may require self-control. This was tested in two experiments that experimentally manipulated individuals' level of self-control strength. In the first experiment, individuals whose self-control capacity was depleted were more likely to misrepresent how many problems they solved and work after being told to stop while working on a timed test. These same results were found in individuals low in trait self-control. This was especially true when the certainty of getting caught was low. In the second experiment, depleted individuals were ruder to the experimenter than nondepleted participants. The results have implications for understanding how self-control contributes to normative behavior.     

The Role of Perspective Taking and Self-Control in a Preventive Intervention Targeting Childhood Disruptive Behavior

Prevention studies typically focus on outcome variables such as reductions in problem behavior, rather than targeted factors (e.g., cognitions), or the relation between change in targeted factors and outcomes. Therefore, the current study examined the effect of a targeted prevention program for childhood disruptive behavior on targeted factors (i.e., perspective taking and self-control) and associations between change in targeted factors and outcomes (i.e., aspects of disruptive behavior). The sample consisted of 173 children (Mage?=?10.2 years) who were randomly assigned to an intervention condition (n?=?70) or waitlist control condition (n?=?103). Assessment took place at pre-, post- and follow-up measurements. For ethical considerations, follow-up data was not available for children on the waitlist. Findings revealed a direct intervention effect on self-control. From pre-test to follow-up, children who received the intervention improved in perspective taking and self-control. Moreover, improvements in self-control were associated with and predicted reductions in teacher-reported symptoms of oppositional defiant disorder. No associations were found between changes in perspective taking and disruptive behavior. These findings suggest that self-control may be an important target factor in reducing childhood disruptive behavior in targeted prevention.

     

Hypo-egoic self-regulation: exercising self-control by diminishing the influence of the self

Theory and research dealing with self-regulation have focused primarily on instances of self-regulation that involve high levels of self-reflection and effortful self-control. However, intentionally trying to control one's behavior sometimes reduces the likelihood of achieving one's goals. This article examines the process of hypo-egoic self-regulation in which people relinquish deliberate, conscious control over their own behavior so that they will respond more naturally, spontaneously, or automatically. An examination of spontaneously occurring hypo-egoic states (such as flow, deindividuation, and transcendence) suggests that hypo-egoic states are characterized by lowered self-awareness and/or an increase in concrete and present-focused self-thoughts. In light of this, people may intentionally foster hypo-egoism via two pathways-(a) taking steps to reduce the proportion of time that they are self-aware (such as repeating a behavior until it is automatic or practicing meditation) or (b) increasing the concreteness of their self-thoughts (such as inducing a concrete mindset or practicing mindfulness). In this way, people may deliberately choose to regulate hypo-egoically when effortful control might be detrimental to their performance.     

Resisting the temptation to compete: Self-control promotes cooperation in mixed-motive interactions

This article provides a self-control analysis of mixed-motive interactions, including 2-person social dilemmas and bargaining encounters. We propose that mixed-motive interactions pose a self-control conflict between pursuing immediate benefits through competition and pursuing long-term benefits through cooperation. As such, anticipating high (vs. low) barriers to successful outcomes triggers counteractive self-control operations that increase cooperation, so long as people believe that by doing so they can influence others to reciprocate.     

努力程度对消费者购买意愿的影响

在日常生活中, 消费者经常面临着各种各样的自我控制问题。当消费者有合适的理由时, 他们会放松自我控制。基于此, 本文经由三个实验探查了消费者努力程度对消费者购买意愿的影响。其中, 实验一和实验二通过操纵被试的相对努力程度, 发现努力会提高人们对于产品的购买意愿, 并且证明负罪感的变化是导致这一影响的内在原因。实验三通过改变产品品类, 证明相对于实用品, 努力对于人们对享乐品的购买意愿的影响更大。     

Building self-control strength: Practicing self-control leads to improved self-control performance

Self-control performance may be improved by the regular practice of small acts of self-control.Ninety-two adults’ self-control capacity was assessed using the stop signal paradigm before they started practicing self-control and again at the end of 2 weeks. Participants who practiced self-control by cutting back on sweets or squeezing a handgrip exhibited significant improvement in stop signal performance relative to those who practiced tasks that did not require self-control. Participants who did not practice self-control believed that the tasks should improved self-control, engaged in tasks that were effortful and made self-control salient, but did not actually require self-control. Supplemental analyses suggested that only practicing self-control built self-control capacity; the improved outcomes cannot be explained by self-fulfilling prophecies, increased self-efficacy or awareness of self-control. The results may have implications for understanding the development of self-control in both children and adults, as well as clinical implications for treating disorders that involve low self-control.     

Too dog tired to avoid danger: Self-control depletion in canines increases behavioral approach toward an aggressive threat

This study investigated whether initial self-control exertion by dogs would affect behavioral approach toward an aggressive threat. Dogs were initially required to exert self-control (sit still for 10 min) or not (caged for 10 min) before they were walked into a room in which a barking, growling dog was caged. Subject dogs spent 4 min in this room but were free to choose where in the room they spent their time. Approaching the unfamiliar conspecific was the predisposed response, but it was also the riskier choice (Lindsay, 2005). We found that following the exertion of self-control (in comparison with the control condition), dogs spent greater time in proximity to the aggressor. This pattern of behavior suggests that initial self-control exertion results in riskier and more impulsive decision making by dogs.     

Behavior change and individual differences in self-control

The use of self-control has become a major emphasis in recent behavioral treatment approaches. This has been especially true for the modification of appetitive disorders: high frequency behavior with immediate positive and delayed negative consequences, such as smoking and overeating. While the results have. for the most part. been promising, they have been marked by a high degree of intersubject variability: even the most generally effective programs have had only selective success (Mahoney, 1972). This variability might well be a function of fundamental interindividual differences in the ability to implement various self-control procedures. Kanfer (1971) has conceptualized self-control as a three component, closed loop process: self-monitoring followed by self-evaluation followed by self-reinforcement. The utilization of each component, the nature of their interaction and their implementation are all learned. Given the complexity of the process and idiosyncratic learning histories, individual differences are to be expected in each component of the self-control sequence. The effectiveness of any therapeutic program emphasizing self-control should, therefore, be a function of the ability and disposition of the patients to implement the self-control sequence or the specifie component required by the procedure. An individual having low facility to administer effective self-reinforcement might, for example, do poorly in a program that required self-reinforcement by containing little or no external supports. Someone who has not learned to accurately selfevaluate might contravene a program by administering self-reinforcement inappropriately.One way to test this contention would be to administer a self-control based treatment to individuals identified as differing in self-control ability: high self-controllers would be expected to do better. That method of attack might, however, be deferred. Lichtcnstein (1971) has suggested that before conducting extensive, elegantly designed treatment research, clinical evidence supporting the efficacy of the procedures be gathered. That approbation can be applied to the evaluation of the general hypothesis presented above, which has not yet had direct empirical support. An alternative, more conservative research strategy would be to precede a treatment study with an examination of individuals who had already changed their own behavior: a process that by definition requires the effective use of self-control. Were the hypothesis valid, differences in the general predisposition (or ability) to emit self-control responses should be observed between individuals who have modified their own behavior (e.g., quit smoking, lost weight) and those unable to do so. The purpose of the present study was to offer some preliminary data on this issue by comparing a group of people who had lost weight or quit smoking with a group that had failed at either. The component of self-control selected for study was self-reinforcement. It was predicted that individuals able to modify their own behavior would have a greater predisposition to use positive self-reinforcement than those unable to do so.     

Type A personality, self-control, and vulnerability to stress

Type A behavior (hard-driving, competitive, time-urgent, hostile-irritable) has been linked to high stress levels and the risk of eventual cardiovascular problems (i.e., coronary heart disease, CHD). However, this pattern of behavior closely resembles the traditional masculine instrumental (goal-oriented) orientation, and, if kept within limits, may be viewed as adaptive in success-oriented, middle-class college students. Hypothetically then, Type A behavior may be displayed by a broad group of individuals, and only in those cases when it is allowed to reach extreme proportions is stress sufficient enough to confer risk. This article considers two lines of reasoning. Is greater self-control required for college women to be Type As, because it involves crossing into traditional male role behavior? Type A women displayed significantly better self-control then Type B women; the opposite result was disclosed for college men with Type As displaying poorer self-control than Type Bs. The question of whether risk-conferring Type A behavior would result from poorer self-control was answered in the affirmative. Self-control assumed moderator status; poorer self-control in both male and female Type As was associated with high levels of day-to-day stress relative to Type As with better self-control. Self-control did not influence stress level in Type Bs. This moderator effect suggests that only Type As who cannot contain their behavior within adaptive limits will be vulnerable to excessive stress and at risk for CHD.     

The need for self-control in achievement tests: Changes in students’ state self-control capacity and effort investment

In the present research, we investigated the relation between changes in students’ state self-control capacity and their motivational test-taking effort over the course of an achievement test. Thereby, we considered trait self-control as a major predictor of achievement-related behavior as a covariate. N?=?1840 apprentices repeatedly rated their state self-control capacity and the test-taking effort they invested while working on a 140-min achievement test in mathematics and science. Using growth curve analyses, our results revealed correlated decreases in state self-control capacity and the test-taking effort invested over the course of the test. Furthermore, we found that trait self-control helped to keep state self-control capacity and test-taking effort at a higher level over the course of the test. Our results support the assumption of the process model of self-control that waning self-control capacity is reflected in reduced motivational effort. Furthermore, our findings provide evidence that self-control might play a crucial role in students’ test-taking behavior in large-scale assessment studies. By modeling changes in state self-control capacity and effort investment while considering trait self-control, we provide an alternative approach for investigating self-control-dependent processes and the underlying mechanisms of self-control in achievement situations.     

The measurement of principled morality by the Kohlberg Moral Dilemma Questionnaire

The four stages preceding the postconventional level in the Kohlberg (1958, 1971, 1976) system of moral development are described as involving moral judgments that conform to external conditions of punishment, reward, social expectation, and conformity to the law. No special level of self-control seems necessary to behave in keeping with these conditions of external reinforcement. In contrast, the two stages of postconventional (principled) mortality involve defiance of majority opinion and defiance of the law--actions that would seem to require greater self-control. This study was concerned with whether postconventional moral reasoning, as measured by the Kohlberg Moral Dilemma Questionnaire (MDQ), can be associated with higher self-control. If so, prediction of principled moral behavior from the MDQ would be based not only on postconventional moral reasoning but bolstered by the necessary level of self-control as well. College students who came the closest to postconventional moral reasoning showed better self-control than college students who were more conventional or preconventional in their moral judgments. These results support the validity of the MDQ for predicting principled moral behavior.     

The Measurement of Principled Morality by the Kohlberg Moral Dilemma Questionnaire

The four stages preceding the postconventional level in the Kohlberg (1958, 1971, 1976) system of moral development are described as involving moral judgments that conform to external conditions of punishment, reward, social expectation, and conformity to the law. No special level of self-control seems necessary to behave in keeping with these conditions of external reinforcement. In contrast, the two stages of postconventional (principled) morality involve defiance of majority opinion and defiance of the law-actions that would seem to require greater self-control. This study was concerned with whether postconventional moral reasoning, as measured by the Kohlberg Moral Dilemma Questionnaire (MDQ), can be associated with higher self-control. If so, prediction of principled moral behavior from the MDQ would be based not only on postconventional moral reasoning but bolstered by the necessary level of self-control as well. College students who came the closest to postconventional moral reasoning showed better self-control than college students who were more conventional or preconventional in their moral judgments. These results support the validity of the MDQ for predicting principled moral behavior.     

Self-control as predictor of school grades,life balance,and flow in adolescents

Background. Recently, several studies have shown that strength of self-control is a crucial factor in determining positive outcomes in individuals’ lives. Most attention has been directed to the relationships that self-control has with learning and academic achievement. Aims. This article analyses the effects of self-control not only on school grades but also on the experience of life balance and flow. It is theorized that students with a higher level of self-control are better able to distribute their time in a satisfying way over academic and leisure matters, and are better able to shield their studying against distractions. Samples. A total of 697 eighth graders with a mean age of 13.4 years participated in the longitudinal study. Method. Students completed a questionnaire containing measures of self-control, school grades, subjective life balance, and flow while studying at the beginning and at the end of the school year. Structural equation modelling was used to analyse the relationships between the constructs. Results and conclusions. Results of cross-lagged analyses show that self-control predicted school grades, life balance, and flow. The findings suggest that self-control may assist adolescents to be better prepared, not only for school, but also for coordinating their investments in different areas of their lives.     

SELF-CONTROL TRAINING IN THE CLASSROOM: A REVIEW AND CRITIQUE

Self-control training in classroom settings is becoming widespread. Establishing effective self- rather than externally controlled behavior modification programs in schools would enable children to control their own academic and social behavior, while enabling teachers to devote more time to teaching. The following components of self-control are reviewed in the present article: self-recording, self-evaluation, self-determination of contingencies, and self-instruction. Self-control strategies designed for the maintenance of appropriate classroom behavior, and issues associated with self-control training, such as the reliability of self-observation, response maintenance, generalization, and the role of external control, are examined. Finally, suggestions for maximizing the potential effectiveness of self-control training in the classroom (e.g., teaching self-observational procedures, teaching students to provide themselves with instructions and praise), as well as future areas for experimental investigation (e.g., social changes that may be associated with self-control procedures), are presented.     

The role of off-task thoughts and behaviors in linking self-control with achievement-related and well-being outcomes

Self-control has been linked to a range of important outcomes. However, little research has examined how individuals high in self-control achieve these positive outcomes. This research investigated the day-to-day behaviors and experiences that may be responsible for these links, focusing on off-task thoughts/behaviors. Specifically, two studies examined mind wandering, distractions, interruptions, and procrastination as mechanisms linking self-control with task completion, GPA, job performance, and affect. Participants initially completed measures of dispositional self-control. They were then sent survey links twice a day for seven days to assess day-to-day behaviors/experiences. Results supported the role of off-task thoughts/behaviors in relationships between self-control and task completion, GPA, job performance, and affect. These findings shed new light on how self-control leads to valued outcomes.     

Self-regulation and sexual restraint: dispositionally and temporarily poor self-regulatory abilities contribute to failures at restraining sexual behavior

Nonsexual deficiencies in self-control may contribute to inappropriate or objectionable sexual behaviors, as shown by survey questionnaires, autobiographical narratives, and experimental manipulations. People with low overall trait self-control and/or whose self-control strength had been depleted by recent, nonsexual acts were less likely than other people to stifle inappropriate sexual thoughts and to resist the temptation to engage in sexual activities with someone other than their primary relationship partner. They also engaged in more extensive sexual activity in the laboratory with their dating partner and they reported more undercontrolled or impulsive sexual behavior generally. Furthermore, there was some evidence that the effects of diminished self-control were strongest among those with the strongest sexual desires (men and sexually unrestricted individuals) and among couples with less sexual experience.