Latent Classes of Psychiatric Symptoms Among Chinese Children Living in Poverty

Describing co-occurring symptom patterns among children in nonwestern contexts may have important implications for how emotional and behavior problems are defined, conceptualized, studied, and ultimately prevented. A latent profile analysis (LPA) was conducted on the co-occurring psychiatric symptoms of 196 Chinese children living in poverty. Child depression, anxiety, aggression, and self-esteem scores were used as indicators in the LPA. Three classes of symptoms best described the symptom presentations of children in this study. Ninety-one percent of the youth in the sample were assigned to a class without clinically significant elevations on any symptom index. Six percent fell into an externalizing class, and 3% were assigned to a class with elevated internalizing symptoms. The three classes met empirical criteria for distinctiveness and were validated against parent- and child-rated family characteristics and resources. Children in the externalizing class were more likely to experience harsh and neglectful parenting and their parents were more likely to report avoidant coping styles. In addition to some parenting behaviors (overprotection and low parental support), internalizing symptoms were uniquely associated with low levels of education, housing, economic, and social resources. Implications for preventive interventions are discussed.     

Psychological Type Profile of Roman Catholic Priests: An Empirical Enquiry in the United States

This study explores the psychological type profile of Roman Catholic priests serving in the United States, drawing on data provided by 55 priests who completed the Francis Psychological Type Scales. The data demonstrated clear preferences for introversion (67 %), sensing (64 %), and judging (91 %), and for a balance between thinking (49 %) and feeling (51 %). A very high proportion of priests reported preferences for ISTJ (27 %), compared with 16 % of men in the U.S. population. Implications of these findings are discussed for ministry in the Roman Catholic Church.     

失独父母创伤后应激障碍症状的潜在类别及其相关因素

摘 要 研究旨在探讨失独父母创伤后应激障碍（PTSD）症状的潜在类别及相关因素,分析不同类别失独父母心理韧性的差异。采用创伤后应激障碍量表（PCL-5）、心理韧性量表对385名失独父母进行测查。结果发现：（1）失独父母PTSD症状存在三种潜在类别：PTSD高症状组（30%）、PTSD中度症状组（38%）、PTSD低症状组（32%）。（2）相比PTSD低症状组而言,PTSD高或中度症状组有显著的年龄和失独年限效应,PTSD高症状组中年龄≤60岁、失独年限<10年的人群所占比例较高;PTSD中度症状组的年龄≤60岁的人群所占比例更高。（3）PTSD高症状组心理韧性得分显著低于其他两组。应及时关注和干预小于60岁、失独年限<10年和低心理韧性的失独群体。     

Dimensions of Moral Intensity and Ethical Decision Making: An Empirical Study

Moral intensity is a construct that relates to issues in terms of their perceived moral significance. Individuals' perceptions of moral intensity should impact their recognition of issues as posing moral dilemmas and should also affect ethical judgments and behavioral intentions regarding issues. This study examined the relationship between 4 dimensions of moral intensity and the ethical decision-making process. Two work-related actions were presented to respondents, who then completed measures of the 4 dimensions of moral intensity, whether the actions posed an ethical issue, ethical judgments regarding the actions, and the likelihood that they would engage in the actions. Results indicate that moral intensity dimensions were associated with individuals' ethical decisions. Social consensus and seriousness of consequences were particularly important influences on the ethical decision-making process.     

失独父母创伤后应激障碍症状的潜在类别及其相关因素

摘 要 研究旨在探讨失独父母创伤后应激障碍（PTSD）症状的潜在类别及相关因素,分析不同类别失独父母心理韧性的差异。采用创伤后应激障碍量表（PCL-5）、心理韧性量表对385名失独父母进行测查。结果发现：（1）失独父母PTSD症状存在三种潜在类别：PTSD高症状组（30%）、PTSD中度症状组（38%）、PTSD低症状组（32%）。（2）相比PTSD低症状组而言,PTSD高或中度症状组有显著的年龄和失独年限效应,PTSD高症状组中年龄≤60岁、失独年限<10年的人群所占比例较高;PTSD中度症状组的年龄≤60岁的人群所占比例更高。（3）PTSD高症状组心理韧性得分显著低于其他两组。应及时关注和干预小于60岁、失独年限<10年和低心理韧性的失独群体。     

An Examination of Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms among Maltreated Multiracial Youth

Symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are common among maltreated youth removed from their homes. These symptoms might be particularly evident in multiracial youth, although little research exists on this vulnerable population. A model whereby depression, dissociation, and posttraumatic cognition symptoms contributed to symptoms of PTSD met goodness-of-fit criteria in 160 maltreated multiracial adolescents. Enhanced model fit was found for females and for adolescents 11 to 13 years old. Analyses further revealed that the best predictors of PTSD symptoms were negative cognitions about the world and anhedonia. The findings are discussed within the context of existing theoretical models of PTSD. The results further highlight the importance of ethnically and racially sensitive approaches to assessment and treatment of youth with PTSD symptoms.     

Global and Regional Perspectives on Testing Children and Youth: An Empirical Study

The results of an international survey of test use in 44 countries are reported. Data are presented and discussed for six groupings: highly industrialised, less industrialised Western, developing Third World, socialist, Middle East, and least developed nations. A total of 740 tests were identified. A number of similarities exist among the six groupings in their test use. Intelligence tests are most commonly used followed by personality and achievement tests. Important differences also exist. For example, the developing Third World and Middle East nations use more group than individually administered tests and fewer achievement tests. Many tests lack reliability and validity studies and norms. Additional tests are needed to assess achievement, intelligence, social development, personality, and vocational interests and aptitudes. Tests are especially needed for children and youth who are learning disabled, mentally retarded, and slow learners. Problems created by these conditions and implications of the frequent use of foreign developed tests are discussed.     

The Latent Structure of Psychopathy in Youth: A Taxometric Investigation

Using taxometric procedures, the latent structure of psychopathy was investigated in two studies of children and adolescents. Prior studies have identified a taxon (i.e., a natural category) associated with antisocial behavior in adults as well as children and adolescents. However, features of this taxon suggest that it is not psychopathy but rather a broader class consistent with the construct of life course persistent antisocial behavior. Because the only prior study of youth used a non-clinical sample, the base rate of psychopathy may have been too low to reveal a psychopathy taxon, especially against the background of a broader and more prevalent antisocial behavior taxon. Therefore, this investigation sought to increase the likelihood of finding a psychopathy taxon (should one exist) by increasing its expected base rate through inclusion of clinical cases in the samples studied. Results produced evidence for both a broad antisocial behavior problem taxon consistent with past research and a much lower base rate taxon consistent with prevalence expectations for psychopathy. These findings support the existence of latent taxa for both psychopathy and a broader class of antisocial behavior problems. Further taxometric research appears to be warranted, which should use a broader array of indicators, with greater specificity to psychopathy.     

The Development of Latent Dimensions of Psychopathology across Early Childhood: Stability of Dimensions and Moderators of Change

Recent research has described the structure of psychopathology as including one general and multiple specific factors, and this structure has been found in samples across development. However, little work has examined whether this structure is consistent across time, particularly in young children, within the same sample. Further, few studies have examined factors that influence the magnitude of the stability of latent dimensions of psychopathology. In the present study, we examine these issues in a community sample of 545 children assessed at ages 3 and 6. In addition, we explored child temperament, parental history of psychopathology, and parenting behaviors as potential moderators of the longitudinal stability of latent dimensions of psychopathology. We found that the same bifactor model structure identified at age 3 provided an adequate fit to the data at age 6. Further, our model revealed significant homotypic stability of the general, internalizing, and externalizing specific factors. We also found evidence of differentiation of psychopathology over time with the general factor at age 3 predicting the externalizing factor at age 6. However, we failed to identify moderators of the longitudinal associations between psychopathology latent factors. Overall, our results bolster support for the bifactor structure of psychopathology, particularly in early childhood.     

Simultaneous Decision on the Number of Latent Clusters and Classes for Multilevel Latent Class Models

The Multilevel Latent Class Model (MLCM) proposed by Vermunt (2003) has been shown to be an excellent framework for analyzing nested data with assumed discrete latent constructs. The nonparametric version of MLCM assumes 2 levels of discrete latent components to describe the dependency observed in data. Model selection is an important step in any statistical modeling. The task of model selection for MLCM amounts to the decision on the number of discrete latent components at both higher and lower levels and is more challenging than standard Latent Class Models. In this article, simulation studies were conducted to systematically examine the effects of sample sizes, clusters/classes distinctness, and the number of latent clusters and classes on the performance of various information criteria in recovering the true latent structure. Results of the simulation studies are summarized and presented. The final section presents the remarks and recommendations about the simultaneous decision regarding the number of latent classes and clusters when applying MLCMs to analyze empirical data.     

Cross-Validation of the Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale-2 Youth Version: An Exploration of Strength-Based Latent Traits

High-quality measurement is a necessary requirement to develop and evaluate the effectiveness of programs that use strength-based principles and strategies. Using independent cross-validation samples, we report two studies that explored the construct validity of the BERS-2 Youth Report, a popular measure designed to assess youth strengths, whose conceptual structure has not yet been examined. In Study 1, an exploratory factor analysis found a four-factor solution with conceptual support, which included both internal assets associated with (a) the management of emotions and positive social interaction skills and (b) engagement in the important social contexts of family and school. In Study 2, confirmatory factor analyses found reasonable model fit for the BERS-2 five-factor structure and superior model fit for the more parsimonious four-factor solution found in Study 1. In future studies, parallel reporting of the four-factor model may provide additional insight to the nature and structure of the BERS-2 Youth Version’s clinical validity and utility when compared with the five-factor model, thus potentially contributing to a broader objective to develop a better understanding of important strength-based latent traits.     

Two-Step Estimation of Models Between Latent Classes and External Variables

We consider models which combine latent class measurement models for categorical latent variables with structural regression models for the relationships between the latent classes and observed explanatory and response variables. We propose a two-step method of estimating such models. In its first step, the measurement model is estimated alone, and in the second step the parameters of this measurement model are held fixed when the structural model is estimated. Simulation studies and applied examples suggest that the two-step method is an attractive alternative to existing one-step and three-step methods. We derive estimated standard errors for the two-step estimates of the structural model which account for the uncertainty from both steps of the estimation, and show how the method can be implemented in existing software for latent variable modelling.     

Relation Between Parent Psychiatric Symptoms and Youth Problems: Moderation through Family Structure and Youth Gender

Links between parents’ psychiatric symptoms and their children’s behavioral and emotional problems have been widely documented in previous research, and the search for moderators of this association has begun. However, family structure (single versus dual-parent households) has received little attention as a potential moderator, despite indirect evidence that risk may be elevated in single-parent homes. Two other candidate moderators—youth gender and age—have been tested directly, but with inconsistent findings across studies, perhaps in part because studies have differed in whether they used youth clinical samples and in which informants (parents vs. youths) reported on youth problems. In the present study, we examined these three candidate moderators using a sample of exclusively clinic-referred youths (N?=?333, 34 % girls, aged 7–14,) and assessing youth problems through both parent- and youth-reports. Both family structure and youth gender emerged as robust moderators across parent and youth informants. Parent symptoms were associated with youth internalizing and externalizing problems in single-parent but not dual-parent homes; and parent symptoms were associated with youth internalizing problems among boys, but not girls. The moderator findings suggest that the risks associated with parent psychopathology may not be uniform but may depend, in part, on family structure and youth gender.     

Urban American Indian Youth Spirituality and Religion: A Latent Class Analysis

This article explores the interconnected spiritual, religious, and cultural worlds of the majority of American Indian (AI) youth who live in urban areas: their patterns of involvement in religion and Native spirituality and associated well‐being. Latent class analysis of data from 205 AI middle school students identified five distinctive classes using survey measures of religious affiliation, attendance at services, adherence to Christian and traditional spiritual beliefs, Native spirituality, and Native cultural practices. Two classes were Christian groups: one attending Christian churches and following Christian beliefs but uninvolved with Native beliefs, spirituality, or cultural practices; and a nominal Christian group affiliated with but not attending church and unattached to belief systems. Two groups followed Native beliefs and spiritual practices, one affiliated with the Native American Church and another unaffiliated with any church. The fifth, nonreligious group, had no religious affiliation, followed neither Christian nor traditional beliefs, and was uninvolved in Native spirituality and cultural practices. The two groups embracing AI spirituality reported better academic performance, more reservation contact, higher AI enculturation, and stronger bicultural orientations.     

Deciding Between Work and Family: An Episodic Approach

This study examined work–family conflict decision‐making based on a within–person, episodic approach. Based on 274 episodes across 78 individuals, we investigated the frequency of decisions that result in work interference with family (WIF) versus family interference with work (FIW), as well as the relation of work and family situational variables and previous work–family conflict (WFC) episodes on those decisions. No difference in the frequency with which participants reported WIF episodes versus FIW episodes was observed. Results indicated that work/family role sender pressure, work/family instrumental support, work/family activity importance, work emotional support, and the direction of the previous WFC decision each predicted WFC decisions. Dominance analysis indicated that role sender pressure was the most important predictor. In addition, we compare and discuss within‐person variation with between‐person variation. Contributions of the study to work–family research and practice are discussed.     

Resilience Variables and Posttraumatic Symptoms Among Maltreated Youth

Child maltreatment is associated with an array of social, behavioral, neurobiological, and developmental problems that can last for many years. A key outcome of child maltreatment includes posttraumatic stress symptoms such as reexperiencing, avoidance, and hyperarousal. Considerable research has focused on risk factors for posttraumatic symptoms in maltreated youth, but less so on possible protective factors such as resilience. This study examined several resilience variables (sense of mastery, sense of relatedness, emotional reactivity) in an ethnically diverse sample of maltreated adolescents with posttraumatic symptoms. Key aspects of resilience that predicted posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms included sense of mastery (for fewer symptoms) and emotional reactivity (for more symptoms). In particular, optimism, self-efficacy, and adaptability were inversely related to PTSD symptoms. In addition, emotional reactivity moderated a relationship between resilience resource scores and PTSD symptoms. The findings appeared to apply most to sexually maltreated youth. The results preliminarily demonstrate the importance of considering resilience-based variables during clinical processes for maltreated youth.     

Borderline Personality Disorder in 3-D: Dimensions,Symptoms, and Measurement Challenges

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a pervasive pattern of psychopathology characterized by unstable affect, suicidal behaviors, and identity problems (Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Washington, DC: Author; 2000). BPD is heterogeneous in nature, highly prevalent in clinical settings, and increasingly studied by clinical and social psychologists. This review highlights affective instability, impulsivity, and interpersonal hypersensitivity, the interaction of which we believe accounts for the symptoms of BPD, the BPD criteria most associated with these features, and the interrelationships among these underlying dimensions. We also discuss difficulties in measurement of these dimensions. Real-world assessment methods will assist in the measurement of time-dependent processes and identify causes, covariates, or consequences of these processes to determine how these features manifest themselves in real life.