Locus of Control as a Stress Moderator and Mediator in Children of Divorce

This paper examined the stress moderator and mediator effects of four dimensions of perceived control in children of divorce. The dimensions of locus of control included internal control for positive events, internal control for negative events, unknown control for positive events, and unknown control for negative events. The sample consisted of 222 children between the ages of 8 and 12 whose parents had divorced in the previous 2 years. Moderational analyses showed that unknown control for positive events interacted with negative events to predict total symptoms. Plots of the simple slopes indicated a stress buffering effect whereby the slope of negative events on symptoms was higher for high than for low levels of unknown control for positive events. Mediational analysis showed that the relations between negative events and symptoms were mediated by both unknown control for positive events and unknown control for negative events. In contrast, evidence was not found for either a stress mediational or a moderational model for perceived internal control for positive or negative events. These results suggest that unknown control beliefs may be a particularly important dimension of control for children of divorce.     

The additive and interactive effects of parenting and temperament in predicting adjustment problems of children of divorce

Investigated the interaction between parenting and temperament in predicting adjustment problems in children of divorce. The study utilized a sample of 231 mothers and children, 9 to 12 years old, who had experienced divorce within the previous 2 years. Both mothers' and children's reports on parenting, temperament, and adjustment variables were obtained and combined to create cross-reporter measures of the variables. Parenting and temperament were directly and independently related to outcomes consistent with an additive model of their effects. Significant interactions indicated that parental rejection was more strongly related to adjustment problems for children low in positive emotionality, and inconsistent discipline was more strongly related to adjustment problems for children high in impulsivity. These findings suggest that children who are high in impulsivity may be at greater risk for developing problems, whereas positive emotionality may operate as a protective factor, decreasing the risk of adjustment problems in response to negative parenting.     

Social support in chumships and adjustment in children of divorce

Examined the relations between support from intimate friends or "chums" and stress, age, and gender in predicting psychological adjustment using a sample of 117 8- to 15-year old children who had experienced parental divorce. Both parents and children provided information on children's adjustment. In predicting children's reports of their adjustment, the direct effect of chum support was found to be moderated by children's age. In predicting parental reports of children's adjustment, no significant main effects or interaction effects occurred. The findings are discussed with attention to the divergent perspectives of different reporters.     

Self-regulation as a moderator of the relation between coping and symptomatology in children of divorce

Investigated the effects of self-regulation as a moderator of the relations between coping efforts and psychological symptoms of children of divorce. The interactions of two dimensions of self-regulation (task orientation and approach-flexibility) and two dimensions of coping (active and avoidant) predicting children's postdivorce symptoms were tested using a sample of 199 divorced mothers and their children, ages 8 to 12. The approach-flexibility dimension moderated the relations of both active and avoidant coping with children's self-report of anxiety. At higher levels of approach-flexibility, active coping was negatively related to anxiety, while at lower levels of approach-flexibility, active coping was unrelated to anxiety. Avoidant coping was un-related to anxiety at higher levels of approach-flexibility, whereas at lower levels of approach-flexibility, avoidant coping was positively related to anxiety. The task orientation dimension did not interact with coping, but had direct, independent effects on children's self-report of conduct problems, depression, and parent-report of internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. The implications for understanding children's coping with divorce and future directions for research are discussed.Support for this research was provided by NIMH Grants P50-MH39246 to support a Preventive Intervention Research Center at Arizona State University and 5-T32-MH18387 for Post- and Pre-doctoral Training in Prevention Research at Arizona State University. The authors thank Leona Aiken, Jane Bernzweig, and Wendy Kliewer for their contributions to this project.     

Negative cognitive errors and positive illusions for negative divorce events: Predictors of children's psychological adjustment

This study examined the relations among negative cognitive errors regarding hypothetical negative divorce events, positive illusions about those same events, actual divorce events, and psychological adjustment in 38 8- to 12-year-old children whose parents had divorced within the previous 2 years. Children's scores on a scale of negative cognitive errors (catastmphizing, overgeneralizing, and personalizing) correlated significantly with self-reported symptoms of anxiety and self-esteem, and with maternal reports of behavior problems. Children's scores on a scale measuring positive illusions (high self-regard, illusion of personal control, and optimism for the future) correlated significantly with less self-reported aggression. Both appraisal types accounted for variance in some measures of symptomatology beyond that explained by actual events. There was no significant association between children's negative cognitive errors and positive illusions. The implications of these results for theories of negative cognitive errors and of positive illusions, as well as for future research, are discussed.     

Longitudinal relations among parental emotional expressivity,children's regulation,and quality of socioemotional functioning

The role of regulation as a mediator of the relations between maternal emotional expressivity and children's adjustment and social competence was examined when children (N = 208) were 4.5 to just 8 years old (Time 1, T1) and 2 years later (Time 2, T2). At T2, as at T1, regulation mediated the relation between positive maternal emotional expressivity and children's functioning. When T1 relations and the stability of variables over time were controlled for in a structural equation model, T2 relations generally were nonsignificant, although parents' dominant negative expressivity predicted high regulation. In contrast, in regressions, the findings for parent positive expressivity, but not negative expressivity, held at T2 when T1 variables were controlled. Thus, relations for negative expressivity, but not positive expressivity, changed with age.     

Children's perceptions of major positive and negative events and factors in single-parent families

A study was designed to tap children's perceptions of the divorce situation as opposed to adults' perceptions of the child's response to the parental divorce. Subjects were 75 boys and 75 girls from mother- and father-headed families. Using an individual structured interview procedure children were encouraged to reconstruct both positive and negative dimensions of their interactions with the custodial parent. Through factor analyses of the contents of interviews four negative and two positive factors involving 20 specific items were identified in the children's perceptual data. Subsequently, chi-square analyses were done to compare differences in girls' and boys' perceptions between and across father- and mother-headed families. Results are discussed in terms of their relationship with the existing literature and their clinical and educational relevance to children, single parents and professionals.     

Coping and negative appraisal as mediators between control beliefs and psychological symptoms in children of divorce

Examined control beliefs of children of divorce as predictors of their coping, negative appraisals for stressful events, and mental health problems. We tested whether coping and negative appraisal for stressful events mediated the relations between multiple dimensions of control beliefs and mental health problems. Different dimensions of control beliefs were related to different aspects of coping and negative stress appraisal. Internal control beliefs for positive events were related to both active and avoidant coping. Unknown control beliefs for positive events were related to higher active coping and higher negative appraisal. Unknown control beliefs for negative events were related to higher avoidant coping. In addition, evidence for mediation was found such that the effect of unknown control beliefs for positive events on mental health problems was mediated by negative appraisal. Implications and directions for further research are discussed.     

Interpersonal conflict, agreeableness, and personality development

This multimethod research linked the Big-Five personality dimensions to interpersonal conflict in childhood. Agreeableness was the personality dimension of focus because this dimension has been associated with maintaining positive interpersonal relations in adolescents and adults. In two studies, elementary school children were assessed on the Big-Five domains of personality. Study 1 (n=276) showed that agreeableness was uniquely associated with endorsements of conflict resolution tactics in children as well as parent and teacher reports of coping and adjustment. Study 2 (n=234) revealed that children's perceptions of themselves and others during conflict was influenced by their agreeableness regardless of their partner's agreeableness. Observers also reported that pairs higher in agreeableness had more harmonious, constructive conflicts. Overall findings suggest that of the Big-Five dimensions, agreeableness is most closely associated with processes and outcomes related to interpersonal conflict and adjustment in children.     

Social support of children of divorce: Direct and stress buffering effects

This study examined the direct and stress-buffering effects of support from family adults, nonfamily adults, family children, and nonfamily children on the adjustment of 104 children of divorce. For children's reports of adjustment, significant stress-buffering (i.e., Stress x Support) interactions for support from family adults and support from nonfamily adults occurred. The lower the level of social support, the stronger the positive relation between stress and adjustment problems. In addition, at high levels of stress, children with high support from nonfamily and family adults reported fewer adjustment problems than did children with low support. However, at the lowest level of stress, children with high support from nonfamily adults were significantly more poorly adjusted than were children with low support. For parental reports of children's adjustment, support from family adults was marginally positively related to adjustment whereas support from nonfamily adults was inversely related to adjustment. Implications for intervention programs for children of divorce are discussed.     

气质与父母养育对儿童社会适应的交互作用:代表性理论及其证据

最佳适配理论、素质-压力模型、差别易感模型从不同视角阐述了气质、养育方式在儿童社会适应行为中的交互作用机制。最佳适配理论强调气质特质与父母养育方式的良好匹配能促进儿童的社会适应,而不良匹配则会带来适应问题。素质-压力模型强调在不利父母养育条件下,具有"风险"气质特质的儿童更容易出现适应不良,而对"弹性"气质的儿童影响不大。差别易感模型则认为儿童"易感"的气质特质在良好的抚养条件下表现得"更好",而在不利的抚养环境中表现得"更差"。围绕三种代表性理论及其实证研究结果,对当前最新研究结果进行了分析和总结,进一步细分了儿童社会化过程中的风险因素和保护性因素。从气质与积极养育方式的交互作用、养育过程中父母角色分工的差异,以及气质与养育方式动态作用机制三个方面指出了将来进一步探索的方向。     

Understanding the emotional past: relations between parent and child contributions in emotionally negative and nonnegative events

The past event conversations of 33 mothers with their 3-year-old children (18 girls and 15 boys) were selected from a larger sample based on their discussion of negative events. Negative events included both those that were negative in topic and those that contained negative incidents but were otherwise positively themed. Within-subjects comparisons were made between the negative events and a neutral or positive event. There were few differences in how mothers and their children talked about negative and nonnegative events. Children did include more interpretations (internal state and causal references) in their negative event conversations. For both event types, mothers who talked more about the past events had children who reported more. When maternal talkativeness was controlled, involving children in the negative event conversations through deflecting the conversational turn predicted children's total contributions and number of interpretations. Repeating information and requests for information while constraining the topic was negatively related to the number of details children reported for nonnegative past events. Conversations about minor negative experiences demonstrate that mothers can influence children's involvement in discussions and understanding of the past.     

父母离异对子心理发展的影响:计票式文献分析途径的研究

采用计票式文献分析技术对国内1994-2005年间关于离异家庭子女心理特点的35篇研究进行了系统回顾,发现所有研究都报告了父母离异对子女心理发展存在消极影响。他们存在更多躯体化、强迫、焦虑、敌对、孤独、冲动等心理健康问题;行为问题发生率高于完整家庭对照组,主要表现为孤僻、退缩、抑郁、社交不良等行为问题;在人格方面更具神经质特征,表现出更强的掩饰性,人格倾向性容易出现过分内向或过分外向的两极化趋势;在自我意识方面更消极;在学业方面表现较差;知觉到更强的压力而且采用更消极的应对方式,有着更高的犯罪率和自杀意念。对目前研究方法上的不足之处进行了探讨,对国内外研究内容和结果上的差异进行了分析,对未来的研究方向提出了意见和建议。     

Executive function and theory of mind: stability and prediction from ages 2 to 3

Several studies have demonstrated a relation between executive functioning (EF) and theory of mind (ToM) in preschoolers, yet the developmental course of this relation remains unknown. Longitudinal stability and EF-ToM relations were examined in 81 children at 24 and 39 months. At Time 1, EF was unrelated to behavioral measures of ToM but was significantly related to parent report of children's internal-state language, independent of vocabulary size. At Time 2, behavioral batteries of EF and ToM were significantly related (r=.50, p<.01). Furthermore, EF (Time 1) significantly predicted ToM (Time 2), independent of several controls. A reciprocal relation (internal-state language --> EF at Time 2) was nonsignificant with the controls included. Individual differences in EF were relatively stable.     

Parent Reports and Laboratory Assessments of Child Temperament: A Comparison of Their Associations With Risk for Depression and Externalizing Disorders

Parent reports and laboratory assessments of child temperament traits were compared in terms of their associations with 2 indices of risk for future maladjustment: maternal history of depression and disruptive school behavior. A community sample of 99 pre-school-aged children completed a standardized battery of laboratory tasks designed to tap positive emotionality (PE) and anger. Parent reports of child temperament were collected, and maternal history of depression was assessed using structured clinical interviews. An average of 18.5 months after the initial laboratory assessment, teacher reports of disruptive school behavior were collected. Structural equation models were used to test the association between the 2 assessment approaches of child temperament and maternal history of depression and disruptive school behavior. Laboratory measures and parent reports of anger were equally good at predicting disruptive school behavior, while laboratory measures of PE showed stronger associations with maternal history of depression than parent report.     

Measurement of adolescents' life events: The junior high life experiences survey

The first of these two studies examined the relationship between adolescents' scores on a social desirability questionnaire and scores of negative, positive, and total life events. Only number of positive events was significantly related to social desirability. The second study compared various scoring strategies with respect to their intercorrelation and their ability to predict adolescents' maladjustment (depression, anxiety, and number of missed school days). The results demonstrated that (a) total number of events and readjustment-weighted life change scores were equally predictive of the maladjustment criteria; (b) negative events, but not positive events, however scored, were significantly related to the maladjustment criteria; (c) indices based on psychologist-judges' ratings of event desirability were not more predictive of the maladjustment criteria than were indices based on the adolescents' self-reports; and (d) uncontrollable negative events and controllable negative events were equally predictive of the maladjustment criteria.     

3～9岁儿童人格特质稳定性理解的发展特点

采用情境故事法对281名3～9岁儿童对不同类型的消极或积极特质稳定性的理解进行了个别测查,使用了“性质-类型-性质”的特质推理研究范式,任务涉及跨时间稳定性和跨情境一致性两个层面的考察。五因素重复测量方差分析结果表明,3～9岁儿童对于特质稳定性的理解表现出随年龄发展稳定观不断增强的趋势,4岁可能是儿童特质稳定性理解由不成熟向成熟方向发展的关键点;此外,研究验证了年龄与特质性质的交互作用,也发现了问题类型和特质类型对特质稳定性理解的调节作用。这些特点与年幼儿童获得的心理知识和对特质发展影响因素的觉知有关,也可能与整个文化系统的直接或间接作用有关。     

Parent and child expressed affect and children's social competence: modeling direct and indirect pathways

This study examined links between parents' and children's expressed affect during parent-child play and children's social functioning with peers. A total of 116 kindergarten-age children and their parents (114 mothers, 102 fathers) were observed during physical play interactions and were coded on global measures of expressed positive and negative affect. Kindergarten and 1st-grade teachers and peers provided measures of social competence. Latent variable path analysis with partial least squares was used to examine models that included "direct" and "indirect" pathways. Relations between parental positive affect and children's social competence were mediated by children's expressed positive affect. Parental negative affect was associated with negative social outcomes in children; however, these relations were not mediated by children's negative expressions. The strongest support for the hypothesized models was found in same-sex dyads.     

6～9岁儿童特质观与其人格特质的关系

为考察特质观与稳定的行为方式之间的关系,采用情境故事法和问卷法分别对180名6～9岁儿童进行了特质稳定性理解的个别测查和人格特质的教师评定。结果发现,持三种不同特质观（实体论、中间论、渐变论）的6～9岁儿童开始在认真有恒、自制稳重、聪慧性、开朗活泼和同情利他五种人格特质行为上表现出显著差异;6～9岁儿童的特质观能够预测以上五种人格特质,丽儿童“开朗插泼”和“聪慧性”特质行为的线性组合是预测儿童特质观的最佳指标。这些研究结论有助于说明关于特质的认知在调解和制约个体稳定的行为理解和反应中的重要作用,验证了人格认知流派的观点;支持了认知与人格之间交互作用的理论假设;对于解释年幼儿童发展中的不适应问题具有一定的意义。     

Events of parental divorce: Stressfulness ratings by children,parents, and clinicians

The stressfulness, for the "typical" child, of 62 events that occur to children of divorce was rated by children of divorce (n = 58), their custodial parents (n = 58), and clinicians (n = 50). In addition, a larger group of children (n = 123) rated the goodness or badness of the events that had happened to them. The rank orderings of the mean stress ratings for the typical child made by children, parents, and clinicians were highly correlated. However, when the absolute stress value of the events was compared across raters, children rated 10 events as significantly less stressful than did parents (p less than .05); parents' and clinicians' ratings differed for 9 events, parents rating 7 as less stressful (p less than .05). Children rated 19 events as less stressful than did clinicians (p less than .05). The rank ordering of the children's mean ratings of events actually experienced correlated highly with the rank orderings of the children's mean ratings of the negative events for the typical child.