Sex differences in nonverbal behavior

A variety of nonverbal behaviors was coded from videotapes of 88 dyadic conversations. The 44 male and 44 female subjects were paired so that each participated in one conversation with a stranger of the same sex and one conversation with a stranger of the opposite sex. It was found that sex of subject, but not sex of partner, had a significant effect on many of the nonverbal behaviors displayed during the conversations. Subjects' scores on the behavioral measures were correlated with their scores on several personality measures and on a post-conversation questionnaire. Sex differences in these correlations were used to generate hypotheses linking specific behavioral differences between the sexes to more general differences between the masculine and feminine interpersonal styles.This study was supported in part by NSF grant GS-3033, awarded to Starkey Duncan, University of Chicago; by NSF grant GS-3127, awarded to Donald Fiske, University of Chicago; by a grant awarded to Starkey Duncan and Donald Fiske by the Social Science Divisional Research Committee of the University of Chicago; and by a University of Chicago Humanities Fellowship awarded to the author. The author is grateful to Starkey Duncan and Donald Fiske for the extensive assistance they provided with this study. The author also wishes to express her appreciation to Jeanine Carlson, George Niederehe, Bruno Repp, Thomas Shanks, and Cathy Stepanek, who assisted in coding the videotaped data and in the statistical analysis. This article is based on the author's doctoral dissertation (Beekman, 1973), which may be consulted for further details.Previous drafts of this article have been circulated under the author's former name, Susan J. Beekman.     

Sex differences in dominance behavior

The effect of the status characteristic of sex on dominance behavior was investigated as a function of a challenger's sex and in relation to one's sex-role orientation. Dyads composed of a student and a confederate recorded individual preferences, then joint decisions, for the more attractive picture of 20 pairs of pictures. The number of challenges a student sustained each time a disagreement occurred regarding the more attractive picture of a pair was recorded. Males withstood significantly more challenges against their preferences than females did (p<.006). However, no differences were found as a function of the sex of one's partner; nor did the Attitudes toward Women Scale (AWS) prove to be a good predictor of dominance. Results were discussed in terms of predictions made by the theory of status characteristics.This report is based on a master's thesis written by the first author under the sponsorship of the second and submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the MA degree at the Graduate School of the University of Alabama. Portions were presented as part of of the paper session Compliance-Conformity/Altruism-Helping Behavior at the annual meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, New Orleans, March 1976.The authors would like to express their appreciation those who served as confederates in this study: Jim Dodds, Rochelle Hanan, Eunice Fogarty, and Rex Hall.     

Sex typing and the coronary-prone behavior pattern

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between sex-role orientation and the coronary-prone behavior pattern [Type A]. Ninety-six males and eighty-four females were administered the Bem Sex Role Inventory and the student version of the Jenkins Activity Survey. The results showed that, irrespective of sex, Type A subjects were significantly more instrumental (masculine) and less expressive (feminine) than Type B subjects. Consistent with previous research females were found to be more expressive than males; however, the sole predictor of instrumentality was A/B classification. The potential significance of these findings for refining predictions of coronary artery and heart disease is discussed and recommendations for future research are offered.Portions of this paper were presented at the Third Annual Meeting of the Society of Behavioral Medicine, Chicago, March 1982.     

Sex role development and teenage fertility-related behavior

Data from a 1975 survey of 369 females and 325 males aged 16-17 were analyzed to shed light on the relationship between the maturity of adolescent women and their sexual behavior and contraceptive practice. A straightforward decision-making process was found among males, but more complicated influences exist for females. When the data were submitted to regression and chi-squared analyses, it was found that whereas sexually active adolescents had more liberal sexual attitudes than virgins, their sex role attitudes were more stereotypical than virgins. Then the 2 groups were subdivided into virgins who did not intend to have premarital intercourse (20%); virgins who planned or considered premarital intercourse (40%); adolescents who experienced intercourse prior to age 16 (20%); and those who experienced intercourse after age 16 (20%). It was found that the virgins who did not intend to have premarital intercourse held the most stereotypical sex role attitudes, followed by sexually active women, and that virgins planning or considering intercourse held the least stereotypical views of all. It is suggested that this occurred because these adolescents were more mature and had resolved sexual identity problems earlier without resorting to intercourse. Birth control use was found to be more effective among the adolescents who experienced intercourse after age 16. Further studies are underway to test the hypotheses that the more mature a woman is when she experiences intercourse, the more likely it is that her development will be enhanced and that her contraceptive behavior will be effective.     

Sex education for parents using behavior rehearsal

Abstract

In reviewing the family assessment literature, there appears to be a need for behaviorally based report procedures capable of describing important aspects of family functioning. Thus far, most activity in this direction has involved the development of methods of evaluating marital relationships with relatively little attention to parent-adolescent assessment. This article introduces an adaptation of the Areas of Change Questionnaire (originally developed for work with marital pairs) for the assessment of parent-adolescent relationships. The potential utility of this instrument in clinical and research efforts is described, and initial psychometric evaluations are presented.     

The assessment of disability in epileptic patients

Report is given concerning 16 epileptics in whom annuity could be suspended. Types of seizures did not differ from those analysed in a formerly study of further invalid epileptics. On the contrary, the beginning of treatment was very soon after manifestation of disease, and the treatment was in the hand of neuropsychiatrists with mostly good or very good attention. Improvement could be obtained mainly by decrease of seizure frequency of freedom from seizures, and after few years invalidity could be annulled.     

Sex typing and the avoidance of cross-sex behavior.

This article presents evidence for the hypothesis that cross-sex behavior is motivationally problematic for sex-typed individuals and that they actively avoid it as a result. In particular, when asked to indicate which of a series of paired activities they would prefer to perform for pay while being photographed, sex-typed subjects were more likely than either androgynous or sex-reversed subjects to prefer sex-appropriate activity and to resist sex-inappropriate activity, even though such choices cost them money. Moreover, actually engaging in cross-sex behavior caused sex-typed subjects to report greater psychological discomfort and more negative feelings about themselves.     

Sex and birth order differences in filial behavior

Personal interviews were conducted with 499 children of elderly white widows. Results showed no birth order differences in the provision of assistance to the elderly; however, there were significant sex differences. Daughters performed more caretaking activities and social services and provided more emotional support for their mothers than did sons. Sons had a tendency, though insignificant, to provide more advisory assistance to their mothers. After adjusting for situational differences between daughters and sons a sex difference remained only for the provision of emotional support.     

Sex role flexibility and prosocial behavior among preschool children

The relationship between sex role flexibility and prosocial behavior among preschool children was investigated. Subjects included 16 boys and 18 girls, ranging in age from 36 to 60 months, from intact families of the upper middle class. A nonhierarchical multiple regression analysis was undertaken to determine the contributions of the predictor variables of sex, age, IQ, and sex role flexibility, as well as their interactions with prosocial behavior (criterion variable). Results indicated that while the overall regression model was not significant, the variable of Sex × Sex Role Flexibility did contribute significantly to the model. Inspection of the correlation coefficients associated with this variable revealed that while sex role flexibility and prosocial behavior among boys were significantly and positively related, among girls no significant relationship was found.     

Anticonvulsive therapy and complications of pregnancy in epileptic patients

During observation of 92 pregnancies, epileptic seizures, pregnancy complications and complications regarding the newborns were noticed with 67 women having epilepsy and correlated by means of following therapeutic aspects: without anticonvulsive therapy, monotherapy, combined therapy. Most of the attacks suffered women that were treated by combined therapy. Pregnancy and birth complications appeared nearly to the same extent more with patients under mono- and combined therapy than with patients without therapeutic treatment. Most frequently we saw complications and malformations with regard to the children in that group of mothers that had been treated by an anticonvulsive combined therapy.     

Sex of leader,leader behavior,and subordinate satisfaction

A 2×2×2 factorial design was employed to examine the influence of instructed leadership style, sex of leader, and sex of followers on leader behavior, subordinate satisfaction, and productivity in a simple task. In general, male and female leaders were equally able and equally willing to display autocratic and democratic leadership styles if so instructed. Similarly, leader sex did not have a significant influence on subordinate satisfaction or productivity either by itself or in interaction with leadership style or follower sex.     

Employment of epileptic patients abroad and their fitness for travel

On the basis of relevant literature and from personal experience, the paper discusses problems of the fitness of epileptics to travel by air and to work and holiday abroad. As an aid to consultation, tentative recommendations are made.     

Sex steroids and human behavior: implications for developmental psychopathology

In a variety of mammalian species, prenatal androgens organize brain structures and functions that are later activated by steroid hormones in postnatal life. In humans, studies of individuals with typical and atypical development suggest that sex differences in reproductive and nonreproductive behavior derive in part from similar prenatal and postnatal steroid effects on brain development. This paper provides a summary of research investigating hormonal influences on human behavior and describes how sex differences in the prevalences and natural histories of developmental psychopathologies may be consistent with these steroid effects. An association between patterns of sexual differentiation and specific forms of psychopathology suggests novel avenues for assessing the effects of sex steroids on brain structure and function, which may in turn improve our understanding of typical and atypical development in women and men.     

Sex and least preferred co-worker score effects in leadership behavior

This study investigated the subordinate liking and the leadership style of male and female managers in a simulated business activity. Sixty-seven female and 290 male undergraduate and graduate business students participated in this study. Female managers, on average, were not less well liked, nor were they more accommodative than male managers. Among managers classified as distinctly accommodative, females were not better liked than males; among managers classified as distinctly directive, females were significantly better liked than males. Under pressure to act in a directive manner, males tended to make use of their secondary leadership style as defined by F. E. Fiedler (1972), while females did not.     

Sex differences in endorsement of influence tactics and political behavior tendencies

Sex differences in the endorsement of influence tactics and political behavior tendencies were surveyed among 337 employees (176 males and 161 females). The sample was composed of managers, business owners, and professional, technical, sales, and office support workers from a variety of organizations. No significant differences were found between males and females with respect to scores on the Political Orientation Questionnaire, preference for teamwork, exchange of favors, and upward appeal. However, women were significantly less likely than men to perceive themselves as relying on charm, manipulative tactics, and personal appearance to achieve results and gain advantage. None of the sex differences could be attributed to years of job experience.