Attentional control of the creation and retrieval of stimulus–response bindings

Two experiments studied the degree to which the creation and retrieval of episodic feature bindings is modulated by attentional control. Experiment 1 showed that the impact of bindings between stimulus and response features varies as a function of the current attentional set: only bindings involving stimulus features that match the current set affect behavior. Experiment 2 varied the time point at which new attentional sets were implemented—either before or after the processing of the to-be-integrated stimuli and responses. The time point did not matter, suggesting that the attentional set has no impact on feature integration proper but controls which features get access to and can thus trigger the retrieval of bindings.     

Stimulus–response bindings contribute to item switch costs in working memory

In counter updating tasks, responses are typically faster when items repeat than when they change (item switch costs). The present study explored the contribution of stimulus–response bindings to these item switch costs. In two experiments, we orthogonally manipulated the repetition/switch of to-be-counted items and the repetition/switch of required manual responses. Item switch costs were considerably lower when item switches were accompanied by response switches than when accompanied by response repetitions. Experiment 2 showed that, although there was also a smaller contribution from stimulus–stimulus bindings (i.e., shape-location), the major part was due to stimulus-response bindings. These results show that in the widely used standard version of the counter updating task, a considerable portion of item switch costs is caused by the unbinding of stimulus–response bindings rather than by processes of switching items in working memory.     

Delay-induced attenuation of latent inhibition with a conditioned emotional response depends on CS–US strength

Latent Inhibition (LI) attenuation when a long delay is introduced between acquisition and test phases has been repeatedly observed using aversive conditioning procedures (e.g., Aguado, Symonds, & Hall, 1994). This effect has been used as evidence to support those theories that consider LI to be the result of a retrieval failure. We designed three experiments intended to control for a possible effect of incubation of fear as a possible source of delay-induced attenuated LI. Specifically, we examined the effects of a retention interval between conditioning and testing stages on LI using a 3-stage conditioned emotional response procedure (preexposure, conditioning, and testing). Experiment 1 showed that the LI effect was completely abolished in the delayed testing condition. Experiment 2 evaluated whether a process of fear incubation, developed during the retention interval but obscured by a ceiling effect, produced the attenuation of LI. To this end, we reduced magnitude of conditioning by decreasing US intensity and number of acquisition trials. Experiment 3 directly assessed the relationship between CS–US strength and fear incubation. Experiments 2 and 3 revealed that the apparent reduction of LI after the delay was, at least partially, the result of an incubation effect that is a function of the strength of the CS–US association. The results are discussed with respect to their implications for the different theories of LI.     

To do or not to do? Prospective memory versus response inhibition in autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

In the present research, event-based prospective memory and response inhibition (RI) abilities were investigated in children with ASD (Study 1), with ADHD (Study 2), and their matched neurotypical controls. Children engaged in a categorisation (ongoing) task and, concurrently, in either an event-based prospective memory (PM) or a Go/No-Go secondary task. Results showed that, as compared to their matched controls, ASD children's performance was more impaired in the PM task than in the Go/No-Go task, while the performance pattern of ADHD children was reversed. In the ongoing task, ASD children were as accurate as, but significantly slower than, controls, independently of conditions. ADHD children did not differ from controls in the presence of a concurrent PM task, while they were less accurate than controls in the presence of the go/no-go task. Overall, the two patterns of findings suggest important differences in the way ASD and ADHD children remember and realise intentions requiring opposite behaviours (acting vs stopping).     

How do changes in speed affect the perception of duration?

Six experiments investigated how changes in stimulus speed influence subjective duration. Participants saw rotating or translating shapes in three conditions: constant speed, accelerating motion, and decelerating motion. The distance moved and average speed were the same in all three conditions. In temporal judgment tasks, the constant-speed objects seemed to last longer than the decelerating objects, which in turn seemed to last longer than the accelerating stimuli. In temporal reproduction tasks, the difference between accelerating and decelerating stimuli disappeared; furthermore, watching an accelerating shape lengthened the apparent duration of the subsequent (static) display. These results (a) suggest that temporal judgment and reproduction can dissociate for moving stimuli because the stimulus influences the apparent duration of the subsequent interval, and (b) constrain theories of time perception, including those which emphasize memory storage, those which emphasize the existence of a pacemaker-accumulator timing system, and those which emphasize the division of attention between temporal and non-temporal information processing.     

Hyperstriatal function in the pigeon: response inhibition or response shift?

Experiment 1 showed that pigeons with lesions of the anterior or posterior hyperstriatum were impaired relative to unoperated controls and to control operates having neostriatal lesions on both acquisition and reversal of a simultaneous position discrimination. The observation that hyperstriatal birds showed more tendency than controls to halt responding altogether in this situation cast doubt on the notion that the reversal deficit was due to a loss of response inhibition. A second experiment supported an alternative hypothesis, that hyperstriatal birds have a deficit in the ability to shift responding to an alternative stimulus as a consequence of nonreinforcement.     

How do respondents construe ambiguous response formats of affect items?

Ambiguous response formats predict correlations from -.467 to -1 between opposite items, depending on whether the respondent's interpretation of the format is unipolar or bipolar. The authors present a procedure to investigate the proper interpretation in each case. It consists of applying nonparametric and parametric item response theory models (the Mokken and the graded response models) to pairs of opposite items in order to find the locations of the response options along the latent scale and, therefore, identify the response format construction. The authors tested this procedure on 4 samples (Ns=142-1,150) and 2 item pairs ("relaxed"-"tense" and "optimistic"-"pessimistic"). The results revealed that respondents constructed the formats as bipolar and supported the bipolarity of the item pairs.     

An Examination of the Role Individual Differences Play in Videogame–Based Training

Videogames are emerging as an increasingly popular training tool in the military. Given this trend, it is important to investigate factors that maximize the effectiveness of this training medium. The present research analyzed the impact of trainee attributes (i.e., prior videogame experience, videogame self-efficacy, and goal orientation) on game-based training outcomes. Participants completed a game–based tactics training exercise. The training exercise used America's Army, a first-person-perspective videogame with a single-player section to introduce game-specific tasks, followed by a multiplayer section where participants form small teams to conduct collaborative missions. Prior to and after the training exercise, participants completed online questionnaires. Results suggest that the trainee attributes, as a set, had a positive impact on trainee motivation, trainee satisfaction, ease in using the training game interface, metacognitive strategies utilized during training, and time spent engaging in the training game. These findings have implications for instructors using videogames as training tools. Recommendations for future research in this area are provided.     

The asymmetry and temporal dynamics of incidental letter–location bindings in working memory

Verbal–spatial bindings are integral to routine cognitive operations (e.g., reading), yet the processes supporting them in working memory are little understood. Campo and colleagues [Campo, P., Poch, C., Parmentier, F. B. R., Moratti, S., Elsley, J. V., Castellanos, N., … Maestú, F. (2010). Oscillatory activity in prefrontal and posterior regions during implicit letter-location binding. Neuroimage, 49, 2807–2815] recently reported data suggesting obligatory letter–location binding when participants were directed to remember the letters in a display (of letters in locations), but no evidence for binding when instructed to remember the filled locations. The present study contrasted two explanations for this binding asymmetry. First, it may result from an obligatory dependence on “where” during the representation of “what” information, while “where” information may be held independently of its contents (the strong asymmetry hypothesis). Second, it may constitute a snapshot of a dynamic feature inhibition process that had partially completed by test: the asymmetrical inhibition hypothesis. Using Campo and colleagues’ task with a variable retention interval between display and test, we presented four consonants in distinct locations and contrasted performance between “remember letters” and “remember locations” instructions. Our data supported the strong asymmetry hypothesis through demonstrating binding in the verbal task, but not in the spatial task. Critically, when present, verbal–spatial bindings were remarkably stable, enduring for at least 15 seconds.     

A late locus of the distractor frequency effect in picture–word interference: Evidence from event-related potentials

In this study, we investigated how people deal with irrelevant contextual information during speech production. Two main models have been proposed. WEAVER++ assumes that irrelevant information is removed from the production system by an early blocking mechanism. On the other hand, the response exclusion hypothesis assumes a blocking mechanism that operates late, after lexical selection has finished. To delineate between these models, we focused on the distractor frequency effect (i.e., longer picture naming latencies in the context of low-frequency compared to high-frequency words) and measured ERPs concurrently. Behaviorally, the distractor frequency effect was replicated. In the ERPs, three effects were found. One effect occurred very early and is interpreted as an effect of low-level visual feature processing. The two other effects occurred after lexical access and are thus in line with the response exclusion hypothesis.     

Does response mode affect amount recalled or the magnitude of the testing effect?

The testing effect is the finding that retrieval practice can enhance recall on future tests. One unanswered question is whether first-test response mode (writing or speaking the answer) affects final-test performance (and whether final-test response mode itself matters). An additional unsettled issue is whether written and oral recall lead to differences in the amount recalled. In three experiments, we examined these issues: whether subjects can recall more via typing or speaking; whether typing or speaking answers on a first test can lead to better final-test performance (and whether an interaction occurs with final-test response mode) and whether any form of overt response leads to better final-test performance as compared to covert retrieval (thinking of the answer but not producing it). Subjects studied paired associates; took a first test by typing, speaking, or thinking about responses; and then took a second test in which the answers were either spoken or typed. The results revealed few differences between typing and speaking during recall, and no difference in the size of the testing effect on the second test. Furthermore, an initial covert retrieval yielded roughly the same benefit to future test performance as did overt retrieval. Thus, the testing effect was quite robust across these manipulations. The practical implication for learning is that covert retrieval provides as much benefit to later retention as does overt retrieval and that both can be effective study strategies.     

Daydreams and trait affect: The role of the listener’s state of mind in the emotional response to music

Music creates room for the mind to wander, mental time travel, and departures into more fantastical worlds. We examined the mediating role of daydreams and the moderating function of personality differences for the emotional response to music by using a moderated mediation approach. The results showed that the valence of daydreams played a mediating role in the reaction to the musical experience: happy music was related to more positive daydreams, which were associated with greater relaxation with the happy music and to greater liking of the happy music. Furthermore, negative affect (trait) moderated the direct effect of sad vs. happy music on the liking of the music: individuals with high scores on negative affect preferred sad music. The results are discussed with regard to the interplay of general and personality-specific processes as it is relevant to better understand the effects music can have on the listeners.     

Stimulus–response bindings code both abstract and specific representations of stimuli: evidence from a classification priming design that reverses multiple levels of response representation

Repetition priming can be caused by the rapid retrieval of previously encoded stimulus–response (S–R) bindings. S–R bindings have recently been shown to simultaneously code multiple levels of response representation, from specific Motor-actions to more abstract Decisions (“yes”/”no”) and Classifications (e.g., “man-made”/”natural”). Using an experimental design that reverses responses at all of these levels, we assessed whether S–R bindings also code multiple levels of stimulus representation. Across two experiments, we found effects of response reversal on priming when switching between object pictures and object names, consistent with S–R bindings that code stimuli at an abstract level. Nonetheless, the size of this reversal effect was smaller for such across-format (e.g., word–picture) repetition than for within-format (e.g., picture–picture) repetition, suggesting additional coding of format-specific stimulus representations. We conclude that S–R bindings simultaneously represent both stimuli and responses at multiple levels of abstraction.     

Temporal cue–target overlap is not essential for backward inhibition in task switching

Lag 2 repetition costs are a performance cost observed when participants return to a task after just one intervening trial of a different task, compared to returning after a longer interval (AB A vs. CB A sequences, where A, B, C are tasks). This effect is known as backward inhibition (BI) and is thought to reflect the need to overcome inhibition applied specifically to Task “A” during disengagement at trial n – 1. Druey and Hübner (2007) Druey, M. and Hübner, R. 2007. The role of temporal cue–target overlap in backward inhibition under task switching. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14: 749–754. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] have suggested that employment of such a specific inhibitory mechanism relies upon the cue and the target of the task overlapping temporally. We provide evidence across three experiments (including a direct replication attempt) that this is not the case, and that the presence of task-specific BI relies to some extent on the need to translate the cue–target relationship into working memory. Additionally, we provide evidence that faster responses in no overlap conditions are driven by low-level perceptual differences between target displays across overlap conditions. We conclude that BI is an effective sequential control mechanism, employed equally in cases of temporally overlapping and temporally separated cues and targets.     

Go or no‐go? Developmental improvements in the efficiency of response inhibition in mid‐childhood

This experiment used a modified go/no‐go paradigm to investigate the processes by which response inhibition becomes more efficient during mid‐childhood. The novel task, which measured trials on which a response was initiated but not completed, was sensitive to developmental changes in response inhibition. The effect of inducing time pressure by narrowing allowable response time was also examined. While increasing time pressure did not reduce the inhibitory demands of the task for either age group, older children (aged 9 to 11 years) were able to inhibit their responses at an earlier stage of movement than younger children (aged 5 to 7 years). This shows that as children get older they become more efficient at controlling their behaviour which drives developmental improvements in response inhibition.     

False recall in the Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm: The roles of gist and associative strength

Theories of false memories, particularly in the Deese–Roediger–McDermott (DRM) paradigm, focus on word association strength and gist. Backward associative strength (BAS) is a strong predictor of false recall in this paradigm. However, other than being defined as a measure of association between studied list words and falsely recalled nonpresented critical words, there is little understanding of this variable. In Experiment 1, we used a knowledge-type taxonomy to classify the semantic relations in DRM stimuli. These knowledge types predicted false-recall probability, as well as BAS itself, with the most important being situation features, synonyms, and taxonomic relations. In three subsequent experiments, we demonstrated that lists composed solely of situation features can elicit a gist and produce false memories, particularly when monitoring processes are made more difficult. Our results identify the semantic factors that underlie BAS and suggest how considering semantic relations leads to a better understanding of gist formation.     

Distributional analyses in the picture–word interference paradigm: Exploring the semantic interference and the distractor frequency effects

The present study explores the distributional features of two important effects within the picture–word interference paradigm: the semantic interference and the distractor frequency effects. These two effects display different and specific distributional profiles. Semantic interference appears greatly reduced in faster response times, while it reaches its full magnitude only in slower responses. This can be interpreted as a sign of fluctuant attentional efficiency in resolving response conflict. In contrast, the distractor frequency effect is mediated mainly by a distributional shift, with low-frequency distractors uniformly shifting reaction time distribution towards a slower range of latencies. This finding fits with the idea that distractor frequency exerts its effect by modulating the point in time in which operations required to discard the distractor can start. Taken together, these results are congruent with current theoretical accounts of both the semantic interference and distractor frequency effects. Critically, distributional analyses highlight and further describe the different cognitive dynamics underlying these two effects, suggesting that this analytical tool is able to offer important insights about lexical access during speech production.