Spatial memory and explicit knowledge: An effect of instruction on representational momentum

Freyd (1987; Finke & Freyd, 1985) suggested that representational momentum (i.e., forward displacement in memory for the location of a moving target) is impervious to error feedback (i.e., is modular or cognitively impenetrable), but studies supporting this claim might not have allowed sufficient opportunity for learning to occur. In the experiment reported here, participants were (a) naïve regarding representational momentum, (b) informed about representational momentum but not instructed to counteract it, or (c) informed about representational momentum and instructed to counteract it. All participants exhibited significant displacement. However, participants informed about representational momentum exhibited less forward displacement than did naïve participants due to a greater tendency to respond same to probes behind the true–same position. Possible mechanisms of compensation and the notion that displacement reflects both modular (cognitively impenetrable) and nonmodular (cognitively penetrable) components are addressed.     

Illusory motion and representational momentum

When a moving target vanishes abruptly, participants judge its final position as being ahead of its actual final position, in the direction of motion (representational momentum; Freyd & Finke, 1984). In the present study, we presented illusory motion and examined whether or not forward displacement was affected by the perceived direction and speed of the target. Experiments 1A and 1B showed that an illusory direction of movement of a target was perceived, and Experiment 2 showed that an illusory speed of a moving target was observed. However, neither the direction nor the magnitude of forward displacement was affected by these illusions. Therefore, it was suggested that the mechanism underlying forward displacement (or some extrapolation processing) uses different motion signals than does the perceptual mechanism.     

线索提示对表征动量的影响

研究结合线索提示和表征动量范式,实验1、2均采用2有无线索(有线索,无线索)×4诱导期间时距(1250ms,1750ms,2250ms,2750ms)混合实验设计,探讨线索呈现的加工阶段和时距对表征动量的影响。实验1恒定保持间隔时距,在不同时距的诱导期间呈现线索,发现线索主效应不显著,但表征动量呈减小趋势;时距主效应不显著。实验2变化诱导时距,在恒定的保持间隔呈现线索,发生向后偏移现象,线索主效应显著;时距主效应不显著。研究结果表明,随着注意的增加,表征动量效应减小;注意时距不显著影响表征动量,而注意阶段显著影响表征动量。研究结果为表征动量的双加工理论提供了实证支持。     

Mental extrapolation and cognitive penetrability: reply to Ranney and proposals for evaluative criteria

We propose three criteria for establishing that mentally extrapolated motions are impenetrable with respect to one's knowledge, beliefs, or expectations about the nature of corresponding physical motions, and we review recent findings on mental extrapolation and representational momentum that appear to meet these criteria. We also respond to some arguments recently proposed by Ranney (1989) and Hubbard and Bharucha (1988) that representational momentum is cognitively penetrable. We conclude that mental extrapolations are governed to at least some extent by the inherent properties of the underlying internal mechanisms.     

Can expertise modulate representational momentum?

Representational momentum (RM) refers to the tendency of participants to “remember” the stopping point of an event as being farther along in the direction of movement than it was in reality (Freyd & Finke, 1984). Our aim was twofold: (1) Test for the impact of domain-specific expertise (here, automobile driving) on RM, using films of road scenes, and (2) find out whether the improved anticipation ability that comes with greater expertise is transferred to scenes from domains that are far-removed from the person's domain of expertise. Two experiments were conducted in which experienced and inexperienced automobile drivers performed a movement-anticipation task on realistic road scenes (Experiment 1), with stimuli that were very different from those found in their domain of expertise (Experiment 2). These studies pointed out some properties of representational momentum, and showed that RM is dependent upon knowledge acquired by participants in specific domains. Our research also showed that expertise in automobile driving can modulate RM in road-scene perception (i.e., the cognitive characteristics of the observer can modulate the magnitude of the RM effect) but that expertise in automobile driving is not transferred to dissimilar domains.     

质量表征和眼动过度追踪对表征动量的影响

人们对运动目标最终位置的记忆常常会向运动方向发生偏移, 这种偏移被称为“表征动量”。现有研究对表征动量的解释涉及从低水平的知觉加工到高水平的认知加工等多个方面。本研究采用不同材质和滚动声音的球体作为刺激材料, 考察高水平的质量表征对表征动量的影响以及知觉水平的眼动信息在其中的作用。实验1探讨了对目标质量的主观表征对眼动追踪和表征动量的影响。结果显示, 质量表征会同时影响眼动追踪和表征动量。实验2通过不同的提示线索控制眼动追踪, 进一步探讨眼动过度追踪对表征动量的影响。我们发现, 非自然追踪的条件下, 表征动量会减小, 且质量表征对表征动量的影响不再显著。本研究结果表明, 高水平的质量表征对表征动量的影响会通过知觉水平的眼动过度追踪起作用; 然而, 表征动量还受其它因素影响, 眼动信息并非决定表征动量的唯一因素。     

线索呈现的时空特性对表征动量的影响

为揭示注意对表征动量的影响机制,我们结合线索提示和表征动量范式,通过两个实验比较高、低相关线索分别在诱导期间与保持间隔呈现对表征动量的影响,结果发现：(1)高相关线索的时间特性主效应不显著,最终位置均发生边缘性的向前偏移。(2)低相关线索呈现在诱导期间时,表征动量显著;呈现在保持间隔时,发生向后偏移。这些表明,随着注意增大,表征动量减小;高相关线索更有利于定位,而低相关线索易受时间特性的影响。研究结果验证表征动量的双加工理论。     

The effect of context on visual representational momentum

Effects of background context on representational momentum -were examined in six experiments. In each experiment, three orientations of a target rectangle undergoing implied rotation (i.e., the inducing stimuli) were presented, and subjects judged whether the orientation of a fourth rectangle (i.e., the probe) was the same as or different from that of the third inducing stimulus. Target rectangles were enclosed within a larger square frame context during induction (i.e., presentation of the inducing stimuli), judgment (i.e., presentation of the probe), or both induction and judgment. If context during induction moved in the same direction as the inducing stimuli or if context during judgment was rotated slightly forward from the orientation of the final inducing stimulus, representational momentum was increased. If context during induction moved in the direction opposite to the inducing stimuli or if context during judgment was rotated slightly backward from the orientation of the final inducing stimulus, representational momentum was decreased or reversed. If context was present during both induction and judgment, direction of representational momentum was biased toward the context at judgment Implications of context for accounts of representational momentum are discussed, and a tentative model is proposed.     

Representational momentum in memory for pitch

When a visual pattern is displayed at successively different orientations such that a rotation or translation is implied, an observer's memory for the final position is displaced forward. This phenomenon of representational momentum shares some similarities with physical momentum. For instance, the amount of memory shift is proportional to the implied velocity of the inducing display; representational momentum is specifically proportional to the final, not the average, velocity; representational momentum follows a continuous stopping function for the first 250 ms or so of the retention interval. In a previous paper (Kelly & Freyd, 1987) we demonstrated a forward memory asymmetry using implied changes in pitch, for subjects without formal musical training. In the current paper we replicate our earlier finding and show that the forward memory asymmetry occurs for subjects with formal musical training as well (Experiment 1). We then show the structural similarity between representational momentum in memory for pitch with previous reports of parametric effects using visual stimuli. We report a velocity effect for auditory momentum (Experiment 2), we demonstrate specifically that the velocity effect depends on the implied acceleration (Experiment 3), and we show that the stopping function for auditory momentum is qualitatively the same as that for visual momentum (Experiment 4). We consider the implications of these results for theories of mental representation.     

Representational momentum contributes to motion induced mislocalization of stationary objects

The influence of a moving target on memory for the location of a briefly presented stationary object was examined. When the stationary object was aligned with the final portion of the moving target's trajectory, memory for the location of the stationary object was displaced forward (i.e., in the direction of motion of the moving target); the magnitude of forward displacement increased with increases in the velocity of the moving target, decreased with increases in the distance of the stationary object from the final location of the moving target, and increased and then decreased with increases in retention interval. It is suggested that forward displacement in memory for a stationary object aligned with the final portion of a moving target's trajectory reflects an influence of representational momentum of the moving target on memory for the location of the stationary object. Implications of the data for theories of representational momentum and motion induced mislocalization are discussed.     

Representational momentum and related displacements in spatial memory: A review of the findings

Memory for the final location of a moving target is often displaced in the direction of target motion, and this has been referred to asrepresentational momentum. Characteristics of the target (e.g., velocity, size, direction, and identity), display (e.g., target format, retention interval, and response method), context (landmarks, expectations, and attribution of motion source), and observer (e.g., allocation of attention, eye movements, and psychopathology) that influence the direction and magnitude of displacement are reviewed. Specific conclusions regarding numerous variables that influence displacement (e.g., presence of landmarks or surrounding context), as well as broad-based conclusions regarding displacement in general (e.g., displacement does not reflect objective physical principles, may reflect aspects of naive physics, does not solely reflect eye movements, may involve some modular processing, and reflects high-level processes) are drawn. A possible computational theory of displacement is suggested in which displacement (1) helps bridge the gap between perception and action and (2) plays a critical part in localizing stimuli in the environment.     

Environmental invariants in the representation of motion: Implied dynamics and representational momentum,gravity, friction,and centripetal force

Memory for the final position of a moving target is often shifted or displaced from the true final position of that target. Early studies of this memory shift focused on parallels between the momentum of the target and the momentum of the representation of the target and called this displacementrepresentational momentum, but many factors other than momentum contribute to the memory shift. A consideration of the empirical literature on representational momentum and related types of displacement suggests there are at least four different types of factors influencing the direction and magnitude of such memory shifts: stimulus characteristics (e.g., target direction, target velocity), implied dynamics and environmental invariants (e.g., implied momentum, gravity, friction, centripetal force), memory averaging of target and nontarget context (e.g., biases toward previous target locations or nontarget context), and observers’ expectations (both tacit and conscious) regarding future target motion and target/context interactions. Several theories purporting to account for representational momentum and related types of displacement are also considered.     

Displacement in depth: Representational momentum and boundary extension

Memory for targets moving in depth and for stationary targets was examined in five experiments. Memory for targets moving in depth was displaced behind the target with slower target velocities (longer ISIS and retention intervals) and beyond the target with faster target velocities (shorter ISIS and retention intervals), and the overall magnitude of forward displacement for motion in depth was less than the overall magnitude of forward displacement for motion in the picture plane. Memory for stationary targets was initially displaced away from the observer, but memory for smaller stationary targets was subsequently displaced toward the observer and memory for larger stationary targets was subsequently displaced away from the observer; memory for the top or bottom edge of a stationary target was displaced inside the target perimeter. The data are consistent with Freyd and Johnson's (1987) two-component model of the time course of representational momentum and with Intraub et al.'s (1992) two-component model of boundary extension.     

表征动量的理论模型述评

表征动量是指由于诱导物理动量的作用, 人们对先前运动刺激最终位移的记忆将沿着运动的方向向前发生偏移的现象。诱导物理重力、摩擦力、万有引力同样影响运动刺激最终位移的定位, 扩展了表征动量的概念。相关的表征动量理论模型有：内化理论、朴素物理理论、预期理论、网络模型、眼动理论、双加工理论和计算理论。未来的研究应分别从普遍性和特殊性方面继续探讨表征动量的理论模型, 并加强神经机制的研究, 以便更好的解释日常生活中的内隐运动。     

On the predictive validity of behavioral momentum theory for mitigating resurgence of problem behavior

We summarize the results of four recent translational studies from our lab that used the predictions of behavioral momentum theory to inform the development of more durable treatments for destructive behavior. Treatments informed by behavioral momentum theory generally showed better suppression of target responding during an extinction challenge than did a comparison treatment. We reanalyze data from each of the four studies to show that this general finding is apparent both at the aggregate (i.e., proportion of baseline response rates averaged across participants) and within participant (i.e., percentage reduction in proportion of baseline response rates, difference in raw response rates during the extinction challenge). Interestingly, participants who experienced multiple cycles of the extinction challenge generally showed less differentiation in target responding between the treatment informed by behavioral momentum theory and the comparison treatment. Overall results suggest that applications of behavioral momentum theory can substantially improve the durability of common treatments for destructive behavior.     

速度知识和表征动量

通过3个实验探索速度知识和表征动量的关系。3个实验均使用2（速度知识：快、慢）×2（运动方向：左、右）的两因素实验设计,采用诱导运动范式,因变量为偏移加权均数。实验1使用汽车和自行车作为刺激材料,发现两者的前移量无差异;实验2使用人奔跑和站立姿势作为刺激材料,发现奔跑的前移量大于站立的前移量;实验3是控制实验,发现实验2的结果不是由水平视角差异造成的。结论：在有效启动速度概念的情况下,速度知识可以影响表征动量,但其影响可能相对微弱。     

Comment and Reply Why eye movements and perceptual factors have to be controlled in studies on “representational momentum”

In order to study memory of the final position of a smoothly moving target, Hubbard (e.g., Hubbard & Bharucha, 1988) presented smooth stimulus motion and used motor responses. In contrast, Freyd (e.g., Freyd & Finke, 1984) presented implied stimulus motion and used the method of constant stimuli. The same forward error was observed in both paradigms. However, the processes underlying the error may be very different. When smooth stimulus motion is followed by smooth pursuit eye movements, the forward error is associated with asynchronous processing of retinal and extraretinal information. In the absence of eye movements, no forward displacement is observed with smooth motion. In contrast, implied motion produces a forward error even without eye movements, suggesting that observers extrapolate the next target step when successive target presentations are far apart. Finally, motor responses produce errors that are not observed with perceptual judgments, indicating that the motor system may compensate for neuronal latencies.     

Why eye movements and perceptual factors have to be controlled in studies on "representational momentum"

In order to study memory of the final position of a smoothly moving target, Hubbard (e.g., Hubbard and Bharucha, 1988) presented smooth stimulus motion and used motor responses. In contrast, Freyd (e.g., Freyd and Finke, 1984) presented implied stimulus motion and used the method of constant stimuli. The same forward error was observed in both paradigms. However, the processes underlying the error may be very different. When smooth stimulus motion is followed by smooth pursuit eye movements, the forward error is associated with asynchronous processing of retinal and extraretinal information. In the absence of eye movements, no forward displacement is observed with smooth motion. In contrast, implied motion produces a forward error even without eye movements, suggesting that observers extrapolate the next target step when successive target presentations are far apart. Finally, motor responses produce errors that are not observed with perceptual judgments, indicating that the motor system may compensate for neuronal latencies.     

Transformations of visual memory induced by implied motions of pattern elements

Four experiments measured distortions in short-term visual memory induced by displays depicting independent translations of the elements of a pattern. In each experiment, observers saw a sequence of 4 dot patterns and were instructed to remember the third pattern and to compare it with the fourth. The first three patterns depicted translations of the dots in consistent, but separate directions. Error rates and reaction times for rejecting the fourth pattern as different from the third were substantially higher when the dots in that pattern were displaced slightly forward, in the same directions as the implied motions, compared with when the dots were displaced in the opposite, backward directions. These effects showed little variation across interstimulus intervals ranging from 250 to 2,000 ms, and did not depend on whether the displays gave rise to visual apparent motion. However, they were eliminated when the dots in the fourth pattern were displaced by larger amounts in each direction, corresponding to the dot positions in the next and previous patterns in the same inducing sequence. These findings extend our initial report of the phenomenon of "representational momentum" (Freyd & Finke, 1984a), and help to rule out alternatives to the proposal that visual memories tend to undergo, at least to some extent, the transformations implied by a prior sequence of observed events.     

Shifting the start: backward mislocation of the initial position of a motion

Participants asked to judge the final position of a moving target typically indicate a position shifted forward. In the 6 experiments reported here, participants were asked to indicate both the starting position (SP) and the vanishing position (VP) at the onset and offset of a moving target. Results confirmed the forward displacement of the VP and showed a backward displacement of the SP. To test whether perceptual estimation was influenced by curvature of the trajectory, curvilinear motions were also used. Results showed that apparent displacements are along the geometrical tangents to the SP and VP. Relationships between the results and other findings such as the flash-lag effect the representational momentum, and the Fr?hlich effect are discussed.