Perfectionism,Shame, and Depressive Symptoms

The authors examined the relationship between depression, maladaptive perfectionism, and shame. Regression analyses were used to replicate a model in which maladaptive perfectionism was negatively associated with self‐esteem and positively associated with symptoms of depression, with self‐esteem mediating the effects of maladaptive perfectionism on depressive symptoms. Additional models showed that the path from maladaptive perfectionism to depression was partially mediated by shame, although these paths differed for men and women.     

Perfectionism,Dysfunctional Attitudes,and Self‐Esteem: A Structural Equations Analysis

The researchers in this study examined the association between adaptive and maladaptive dimensions of perfectionism and self‐esteem. Confirmatory factor analysis and structural equations modeling were used to develop and test a model derived from theoretical links between perfectionism and self‐esteem. Path models revealed that adaptive perfectionism was positively associated with self‐esteem and maladaptive perfectionism was negatively associated with self‐esteem. Implications of discriminating between adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism in counseling research and practice are discussed.     

Body‐Weight Self‐Schema: Determinant of Mood and Behavior in Women With an Eating Disorder1

The schema approach to self‐concept was used to investigate the association between body‐weight self‐conception and self‐esteem, negative affect states, and disordered eating behavior in women with anorexia nervosa (n= 26) or bulimia nervosa (N= 53) using experience sampling methodology. We predicted that self‐esteem would be lower and unpleasant affect and disordered eating behaviors would be higher when the body‐weight self‐schema was activated in working memory compared to when non‐weight‐related self‐schemas were activated. Participants recorded the currently activated self‐schema, self‐esteem, affect, and behavior in response to an alarm‐watch signal 5 times daily for 5 days. Activation of the body‐weight self‐schema was associated with lower self‐esteem and higher negative affect, but not higher levels of disordered eating behavior. Low self‐esteem and negative affect, however, were associated with disordered eating behavior. Findings have important implications for treatment of eating disorders.     

The interaction between the superhero ideal and maladaptive perfectionism as predictors of unhealthy eating attitudes and body esteem

Unhealthy eating attitudes and poor body esteem often lead to adverse outcomes (e.g., eating disorders). Prior research has identified two risk factors for these outcomes--endorsement of the superhero ideal and maladaptive perfectionism--and has suggested that these factors may interact to predict unhealthy eating attitudes and body esteem. The current study examined the interaction between the superhero ideal and maladaptive perfectionism as predictors of unhealthy eating attitudes and body esteem among 161 12- to 14-year-olds (74 males, 87 females). Maladaptive perfectionism moderated the relation between endorsement of the superhero ideal and unhealthy eating attitudes for girls only, such that endorsement of the superhero ideal was significantly associated with unhealthy eating attitudes only for adolescents with high levels of maladaptive perfectionism. The moderation model was not significant for body esteem. Prevention strategies should focus on reducing endorsement of the superhero ideal when there are high levels of maladaptive perfectionism.     

Adult attachment styles,self‐esteem,and depressive symptoms: A comparison between postpartum and nonpostpartum women in Korea

Life stress related to child bearing has been suggested to increase the risk of maternal depression in vulnerable women who have an insecure relationship. This study examined the relationship between adult attachment security and maternal depression in postpartum women as compared to nonpostpartum women. A total of 254 Korean women were recruited from pediatric hospitals, of whom 119 were in the postpartum period. Participants completed the Relationship Questionnaire, the Beck Depression Inventory, and the Rosenberg Self‐Esteem Scale. Both preoccupied and fearful attachment styles were associated with low self‐esteem and higher levels of depressive symptoms, but a dismissing attachment style was not related to self‐esteem and depression severity. Low self‐esteem was found to mediate the relation between insecure attachment and depression severity; however, this mediating effect differed depending on the insecure attachment style. For preoccupied attachment, the role of self‐esteem as a mediator was observed only in postpartum women, not in nonpostpartum women (moderated mediation). In contrast, for fearful attachment, the mediating effects emerged in both groups. The results highlight the fact that there is a complex mechanism behind the link between interpersonal relationships and risk of maternal depression.     

The Eating Attitudes Test: validation with DSM-IV eating disorder criteria

The Eating Attitudes Test (EAT; Garner & Garfinkel, 1979) is one of the most widely used self-report eating disorder instruments. Originally developed to diagnose anorexia nervosa, it is often used in nonclinical samples where it has a high false-positive rate, which is likely due to changes in diagnostic criteria. Because the EAT has not been validated with Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed. [DSM-IV]; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) criteria, we examined its criterion validity for discriminating between nonclinical women with and without an undifferentiated DSM-IV eating disorder diagnosis. We also examined differences in mean EAT scores among eating-disordered, symptomatic, and asymptomatic participants. Results show that the EAT has an accuracy rate of at least 90% when used to differentially diagnose those with and without eating disorders and that mean EAT scores differed among eating-disordered, symptomatic, and asymptomatic participants.     

Predicting self‐esteem during unemployment: The effect of gender,financial deprivation,alternate roles,and social support

Two hundred and one unemployed men and women participated in a cross‐sectional study that assessed self‐esteem, financial deprivation, number of alternate roles, and use of social support. Financial deprivation, alternate roles, and social support each had a main effect on self‐esteem. In addition, these variables interacted with gender to affect self‐esteem. Specifically, financial deprivation had a greater negative association with self‐esteem in men as compared with women. In contrast, alternate roles and social support had a stronger positive relationship to self‐esteem in women than in men. The incorporation of these findings into intervention programs for unemployed persons is discussed.     

Reformulating and testing the perfectionism model of binge eating among undergraduate women: a short-term, three-wave longitudinal study

The perfectionism model of binge eating (PMOBE) is an integrative model explaining why perfectionism is related to binge eating. This study reformulates and tests the PMOBE, with a focus on addressing limitations observed in the perfectionism and binge-eating literature. In the reformulated PMOBE, concern over mistakes is seen as a destructive aspect of perfectionism contributing to a cycle of binge eating via 4 binge-eating maintenance variables: interpersonal discrepancies, low interpersonal esteem, depressive affect, and dietary restraint. This test of the reformulated PMOBE involved 200 undergraduate women studied using a 3-wave longitudinal design. As hypothesized, concern over mistakes appears to represent a vulnerability factor for binge eating. Bootstrapped tests of mediation suggested concern over mistakes contributes to binge eating through binge-eating maintenance variables, and results supported the incremental validity of the reformulated PMOBE beyond perfectionistic strivings and neuroticism. The reformulated PMOBE also predicted binge eating, but not binge drinking, supporting the specificity of this model. The reformulated PMOBE offers a framework for understanding how key contributors to binge eating work together to generate and to maintain binge eating.     

Perfectionism and eating disturbances in Korean immigrants: Moderating effects of acculturation and ethnic identity

Korean society highly values personal appearance. Given the established links between perfectionism and eating disorders in Western countries, the present project investigated such links and the extent to which these were moderated by the acculturation patterns of the participants. Korean immigrants to New Zealand (N = 123) completed measures of perfectionism, ethnic identity, eating disorders, and social desirability. Positive and negative perfectionism were associated with eating‐disorder symptoms. For males, but not females, negative perfectionism was more strongly associated with increased body satisfaction only among those who identified strongly as Korean.     

Sweets,Sex, or Self‐Esteem? Comparing the Value of Self‐Esteem Boosts With Other Pleasant Rewards

Abstract Many people ascribe great value to self‐esteem, but how much value? Do people value self‐esteem more than other pleasant activities, such as eating sweets and having sex? Two studies of college students ( Study 1 : N=130; Study 2 : N=152) showed that people valued boosts to their self‐esteem more than they valued eating a favorite food and engaging in a favorite sexual activity. Study 2 also showed that people valued self‐esteem more than they valued drinking alcohol, receiving a paycheck, and seeing a best friend. Both studies found that people who highly valued self‐esteem engaged in laboratory tasks to boost their self‐esteem. Finally, personality variables interacted with these value ratings. Entitled people thought they were more deserving of all pleasant rewards, even though they did not like them all that much (both studies), and people who highly value self‐esteem pursued potentially maladaptive self‐image goals, presumably to elevate their self‐esteem ( Study 2 ).     

Rising High or Falling Deep? Pathways of Self‐Esteem in a Representative German Sample

In many longitudinal studies, self‐esteem has been shown to increase up until around age 50 or 60 and to decrease thereafter. These studies have also found substantial inter‐individual differences in the intra‐individual development of self‐esteem. In the current study, we examined whether this variation in change could be attributed to underlying latent classes of individuals following different trajectories of self‐esteem development over time. By applying general growth mixture modelling to data from the representative German pairfam study (N = 12 377), four latent classes of self‐esteem development across five years were extracted. Based on their mean levels, trajectories, and variability, individuals in the latent classes could be described as having (a) constant and stable high self‐esteem (29.00% of the sample), (b) constant but variable moderate self‐esteem (31.69%), (c) increasing and stabilizing self‐esteem (15.13%), and (d) decreasing and variable self‐esteem (24.18%). Furthermore, these latent classes differed in accordance with findings of prior research on self‐rated, partner‐rated, and objective correlates of the domains of health and well‐being, partner relationships, and occupational status. Thus, the current study shows that inter‐individual variation in intra‐individual change in self‐esteem is not random but reflects specific individual trajectories, or pathways, of self‐esteem. Copyright © 2016 European Association of Personality Psychology     

Social self‐esteem and self‐reported bullying behaviour among adult prisoners

This paper addresses how social self‐esteem relates to self‐reported bullying behaviour among adult prisoners. It explores both level of self‐esteem and participants’ certainty of their self‐esteem. A total of 502 adult prisoners (285 men and 217 women) completed a self‐report behavioural checklist (Direct and Indirect Prisoner Behaviour Checklist) [Ireland JL. 1999. Aggres Behav 25:162–178] that addressed the level of bullying behaviour at their present institution. Prisoners also completed a questionnaire that measured social self‐esteem (Texas Social Behaviour Inventory) [Helmreich R, Stapp J. 1974. Bull Psychonomic Soc 4:473–475]. Four categories of prisoners were compared: bullies, victims, those who reported both bullying others and being victimised themselves (bully/victims), and those who were not involved in bullying behaviour. There were no significant differences among bully categories in total self‐esteem scores. Men reported significantly higher levels of self‐esteem than did women. There were no significant sex or bully category differences in certainty of self‐esteem. Self‐esteem was found to include a number of individual components that differed between the sexes. The findings are discussed, and directions for future research are suggested. Aggr. Behav. 28:184–197, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Educational Self‐Efficacy of College Women: Implications for Theory,Research, and Practice

This study examined the relationships among personal and family valuing of education, self‐esteem, academic stress, and educational self‐efficacy for 530 female undergraduates. Personal and family valuing of education and self‐esteem were related to educational self‐efficacy; academic stress was related to self‐esteem and self‐efficacy. No differences existed between Euro‐American women and women of color, and for both groups, personal valuing of education, self‐esteem, and academic stress predicted educational self‐efficacy. Implications for research and practice are introduced.     

Intended and Unintended Reverberation of Traditional and Pro‐age Commercials as a Function of Viewer Age

Pro‐age advertising campaigns feature mature models, at least in part to reduce the depiction of unrealistic body ideals associated with the use of young models. The introduction of mature models into advertising campaigns may have hitherto unexamined effects on viewers' self‐esteem. We therefore compared the impact of mature and young models on women's levels of self‐esteem. Young adult and middle‐aged women were subtly exposed to young or pro‐age female models before completing an affective priming task designed to measure self‐esteem. As predicted, exposure influenced only appearance‐based self‐esteem, but not global self‐esteem. Furthermore, age congruency led to decreased self‐esteem, whereas age incongruency led to increased self‐esteem. Specifically, exposure to young models decreased young women's self‐esteem, just as exposure to mature models decreased middle‐aged women's self‐esteem. By contrast, exposure to mature models increased young women's self‐esteem, and exposure to young models increased middle‐aged women's self‐esteem. The implications for marketing campaigns are discussed. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Effects of Social Support on Self‐Esteem,Self‐Efficacy,and Job Search Efficacy in the Unemployed

This study attempted to determine the effects of family and social support on the self‐esteem, self‐efficacy, and job search self‐efficacy of the unemployed. A total of 117 surveys were collected in Nevada, Idaho, and Oregon measuring self‐esteem, general self‐efficacy, and job search self‐efficacy and social support. Pearson correlation coefficients demonstrated moderately strong positive relationships between social support and self‐esteem, general self‐efficacy, and job search self‐efficacy. Social and family support had a stronger influence on the self‐perceptions of men than women.     

The development of maternal self‐esteem

Although an important theoretical concept, little is known about the development of maternal self‐esteem. This study explores the significance of maternal cognitions, psychopathological symptoms, and child temperament in the prediction of prenatal and postnatal maternal self‐esteem. During pregnancy 162 women completed measures assessing their unhealthy core beliefs, psychopathological symptoms, and self‐esteem. At 1 year postpartum 87 of these women completed measures assessing their self‐esteem and their child's temperament. Overall maladaptive maternal core beliefs and psychopathological symptoms during pregnancy explained 19% of the variance in prenatal maternal self‐esteem. Forty‐two percent of the variance in maternal self‐esteem at 1 year could be explained by a combination of prenatal maternal self‐esteem, mental health symptoms, maternal core beliefs, and more unsociable infant temperament. Underlying maternal cognitive structures may be important in determining the development of maternal self‐esteem.     

Women,alcohol, self‐concept and self‐esteem: A qualitative study of the experience of person‐centred counselling

This study explores the self‐concept and self‐esteem of women with alcohol problems from a client perspective, and relates the findings to person‐centred theory and practice. Eight women with severe and long‐standing alcohol problems, who had received person‐centred counselling, were interviewed in relation to their sense of self over time. The data were analysed using grounded theory methodology, resulting in the emergence of five key categories. Examples from the interviews are used to illustrate the complex relationships between life experience, self‐concept, self‐esteem and drinking. The possible significance of the findings for counsellors working with this client group is discussed.     

Perfectionism in depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder and eating disorders

High levels of perfectionism have been observed in major depression, anxiety disorders and eating disorders. Though few studies have compared levels of perfectionism across these disorders, there is reason to believe that different dimensions of perfectionism may be involved in eating disorders than in depression or anxiety [Bardone-Cone, A. M. et al. (2007). Perfectionism and eating disorders: Current status and future directions. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 84-405]. The present study compared patients with major depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and eating disorders on dimensions of perfectionism. Concern over Mistakes was elevated in each of the patient groups while Pure Personal Standards was only elevated in the eating disorder sample. Doubts about Actions was elevated in both patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder and eating disorders, but not in depressed patients. Analyses of covariance indicated that Concern over Mistakes accounted for most of the variance in the relationship of perfectionism to these forms of psychopathology.     

How deep is skin‐deep? The relationship between skin color satisfaction,estimation of body image,and self‐esteem among women of African descent

The study of skin color and its relationship to body (dis)satisfaction and self‐esteem is critical to expanding upon the research that explores the intersection between body image and the sociocultural experience of women of the African diaspora. To this end, the relationships between skin color satisfaction, body dissatisfaction, and self‐esteem were examined in a sample of 328 women of African descent. Results revealed a significant effect for ethnicity and employment status on body dissatisfaction, skin color satisfaction, and self‐esteem. Follow‐up analyses revealed that Afro‐Caribbean women were the most satisfied with their body shape, biracial women were most satisfied with their skin color, and women who self‐identified as professionals had the highest self‐esteem. Implications for the findings are discussed.     

Resilience in Community: A Social Ecological Development Model for Young Adult Sexual Minority Women

Family support and rejection are associated with health outcomes among sexual minority women (SMW). We examined a social ecological development model among young adult SMW, testing whether identity risk factors or outness to family interacted with family rejection to predict community connectedness and collective self‐esteem. Lesbian and bisexual women (N = 843; 57 % bisexual) between the ages of 18–25 (M = 21.4; SD = 2.1) completed baseline and 12‐month online surveys. The sample identified as White (54.2 %), multiple racial backgrounds (16.6 %), African American (9.6 %) and Asian/Asian American (3.1 %); 10.2 % endorsed a Hispanic/Latina ethnicity. Rejection ranged from 18 to 41 % across family relationships. Longitudinal regression indicated that when outness to family increased, SMW in highly rejecting families demonstrated resilience by finding connections and esteem in sexual minority communities to a greater extent than did non‐rejected peers. But, when stigma concerns, concealment motivation, and other identity risk factors increased over the year, high family rejection did not impact community connectedness and SMW reported lower collective self‐esteem. Racial minority SMW reported lower community connectedness, but not lower collective self‐esteem. Families likely buffer or exacerbate societal risks for ill health. Findings highlight the protective role of LGBTQ communities and normative resilience among SMW and their families.