Rationalizing two-tiered choice functions through conditional choice

Set-valued choice functions provide a framework that is general enough to encompass a wide variety of theories that are significant to the study of rationality but, at the same time, offer enough structure to articulate consistency conditions that can be used to characterize some of the theories within this encompassed variety. Nonetheless, two-tiered choice functions, such as those advocated by Isaac Levi, are not easily characterized within the framework of set-valued choice functions. The present work proposes conditional choice functions as the proper carriers of synchronic rationality. The resulting framework generalizes the familiar one mentioned above without emptying it and, moreover, provides a natural setting for two-tiered choice rules.     

Organizational media choice in performance feedback: a multifaceted approach

This study was designed to examine media choice in performance feedback, an organizational communication process that has been overlooked in the literature. Specifically, we adopted a multifaceted approach and examined how contextual variables in feedback, variables identified from media choice theories, and individual differences in media perception influenced selection of a medium to communicate performance information. A policy‐capturing survey was administered to 178 full‐time employees in Hong Kong. Participants read feedback scenarios and provided media preference ratings of face‐to‐face, telephone, electronic mail, and written communication. Results showed that the three facets jointly influenced media choice. Given that communication quality is partly determined by the medium selected, the present work sheds light on the understanding of initiation process in performance feedback.     

Choice probabilities and choice functions

Choice probabilities are basic to much of the theory of individual choice behavior in mathematical psychology. On the other hand, consumer economics has relied primarily on preference relations and choice functions for its theories of individual choice. Although there are sizable literatures on the connections between choice probabilities and preference relations, and between preference relations and choice functions, little has been done—apart from their common ties to preference relations—to connect choice probabilities and choice functions. The latter connection is studied in this paper. A family of choice functions that depends on a threshold parameter is defined from a choice probability function. It is then shown what must be true of the choice probability function so that the choice functions satisfy three traditional rationality conditions. Conversely, it is shown what must be true of the choice functions so that the choice probability function satisfies a version of Luce's axiom for individual choice probabilities.     

Coherent choice functions under uncertainty

We discuss several features of coherent choice functions—where the admissible options in a decision problem are exactly those that maximize expected utility for some probability/utility pair in fixed set S of probability/utility pairs. In this paper we consider, primarily, normal form decision problems under uncertainty—where only the probability component of S is indeterminate and utility for two privileged outcomes is determinate. Coherent choice distinguishes between each pair of sets of probabilities regardless the “shape” or “connectedness” of the sets of probabilities. We axiomatize the theory of choice functions and show these axioms are necessary for coherence. The axioms are sufficient for coherence using a set of probability/almost-state-independent utility pairs. We give sufficient conditions when a choice function satisfying our axioms is represented by a set of probability/state-independent utility pairs with a common utility.     

Deviance and a generalized disposition toward internality: An attributional approach

Two studies were carried out to test the hypothesis, derived from attribution theory, that adolescents might acquire an identity and mediating beliefs about reality (internal locus of control) by deviating from norms when they perceived adults to be powerful. In line with this expectation, the major study found that students rated by teachers as "deviant," but not those rated as "conformant," showed greater internality in beliefs about man (control ideology), p = .024, under conditions of high power. Despite the following limitations or exceptions, attribution theory seemed to best explain the predicted effect: (1) the effect for beliefs about control was nonsignificantly weaker for females then males, perhaps because of different meanings of deviance for males and females and female socialization for conformity rather than independence; (2) in the major study the effect was absent for questions dealing with respondents' personal feelings of control ("self-attributions"); and (3) in both studies there was a tendency for deviant females to show more personal externality (relative to conformers) when perceived power was high.     

Shopping destination choice in Tehran: An integrated choice and latent variable approach

Integrated choice and latent variable (ICLV) models are increasingly considered in many fields as a means to gain a deeper understanding into the decision process of individuals as well as to potentially improve predictive ability. Literature has shown that the application of ICLV in context of shopping destination choice has not been conducted yet. This study uses data collected from the city of Tehran, Iran on shopping destination choice of 812 individuals. Then these attitudinal questions are used for the development of latent variables regarding the attitude and lifestyle of the participants. By including one latent variable (LV) reflecting the attitudes of clothing and lifestyle’s of grocery travelers the structural model reveals a sample distribution of this LV conditional on fundamental socio-economic characteristics. The results of our latent variable model clearly confirm that personal attitude toward clothing shopping center and lifestyle indeed impact destination choice. The results show that our experiment and the expanded hybrid choice model (HCM) allow appropriately identifying and investigating the effects of mixtures of latent attitudes on the intention shopping destination choice.     

Choice between fixed-interval schedules: Graded versus step-like choice functions

Pigeons chose between two fixed-interval schedules of food reinforcement. A single peck on one of two lighted keys started the fixed-interval schedule correlated with that key. The schedule had to be completed before the next choice opportunity. The durations of the fixed intervals were varied over conditions from 15 s to 40 s. To maximize the rate of reinforcement, the pigeons had to choose exclusively the shorter of the two schedules. Nevertheless, choice was not all-or-none. Instead, relative choice, and the rates of producing the fixed intervals, varied in a graded fashion with the disparity between the two schedules. Choice ratios under this procedure (single response to choose) were highly sensitive to the ratios of the fixed-interval schedules.     

Discriminative functions of schedule stimuli and memory: a combination of schedule and choice procedures

Pigeons responded under a combination brief-stimulus schedule and choice procedure. Normally, a fixed-interval schedule was in effect, where completion randomly produced either a brief stimulus or food. Intermittently, this schedule was interrupted by a choice arrangement. Two choice keys were lit, either a short or a long time since a prior event (food or stimulus). One choice response produced food if the time had been short, and the alternate response produced food if the time had been long. Across conditions, the duration of the fixed-interval schedule was varied, the stimuli that comprised the brief-stimulus operation were changed, and the stimuli were presented as paired and nonpaired with food. The focus of the study was the control of both schedule performance and choice responding across conditions. The results showed that choice accuracy was correlated with the degree of fixed-interval curvature, the response pattern of a pause followed by a gradually accelerated rate. As fixed-interval schedule duration was increased, both the degree of fixed-interval curvature and choice accuracy decreased. The particular brief stimulus used affected schedule and choice performance, with a more salient stimulus producing a greater degree of curvature and higher accuracy. Pairing and nonpairing operations produced striking differences in performance with the less salient brief stimulus, but not with the more salient stimulus. The results suggest that brief-stimulus schedule performance may be conceptualized in the context of memory research.     

An adaptive approach for modelling multiattribute choice

An adaptive approach for modelling individual-level choice among multiattribute alternatives using the binary logit model is presented. The algorithm involves the collection of paired comparison data. In an effort to maximize the amount of information obtainable from each response, it is based on the experimental design criterion of D-optimality. A simulation study indicates that the proposed algorithm outperforms other sequential selection approaches in terms of estimation accuracy and predictive efficiency under certain circumstances. The results appear to encourage the use of such an adaptive algorithm for individual-level modelling in light of the potential reduction in data requirements without significant loss in predictive accuracy.     

Speed-accuracy tradeoff functions in choice reaction time: Experimental designs and computational procedures

The existence of tradeoffs between speed and accuracy is an important interpretative problem in choice reaction time (RT) experiments. A recently suggested solution to this problem is the use of complete speed-accuracy tradeoff functions as the primary dependent variable in choice RT ,experiments instead of a single mean RT and error rate. This paper reviews and compares existing procedures for generating empirical speed-accuracy tradeoff, functions for use as dependent variables in choice RT experiments. Two major types of tradeoff function are identified, and their experimental designs and computational procedures are discussed and evaluated. Systematic disparities are demonstrated between the two tradeoff functions in both empirical and computer-simulated data. Although all existing procedures for generating speed-accuracy tradeoff functions involve empirically untested assumptions, one procedure requires less stringent assumptions and is less sensitive to sources of experimental and statistical error. This procedure involves plotting accuracy against RT over a set of experimental conditions in which subjects’ criteria for speed vs. accuracy are systematically varied.     

The functions of autobiographical memory: An integrative approach

Recent research in cognitive psychology has emphasised the uses, or functions, of autobiographical memory. Theoretical and empirical approaches have focused on a three-function model: autobiographical memory serves self, directive, and social functions. In the reminiscence literature other taxonomies and additional functions have been postulated. We examined the relationships between functions proposed by these literatures, in order to broaden conceptualisations and make links between research traditions. In Study 1 we combined two measures of individual differences in the uses of autobiographical memory. Our results suggested four classes of memory functions, which we labelled Reflective, Generative, Ruminative, and Social. In Study 2 we tested relationships between our four functions and broader individual differences, and found conceptually consistent relationships. In Study 3 we found that memories cued by Generative and Social functions were more emotionally positive than were memories cued by Reflective and Ruminative functions. In Study 4 we found that reported use of Generative functions increased across the lifespan, while reported use of the other three functions decreased. Overall our findings suggest a broader view of autobiographical memory functions that links them to ways in which people make meaning of their selves, their environment, and their social world more generally.     

The generalized matching law in elite sport competition: football play calling as operant choice

A mathematical model of operant choice, the generalized matching law was used to analyze play-calling data from the 2004 National Football League season. In all analyses, the relative ratio of passing to rushing plays was examined as a function of the relative ratio of reinforcement, defined as yards gained, from passing versus rushing. Different analyses focused on season-aggregate data for the league as a whole, game-by-game data for the league as a whole, and game-by-game data for individual teams. In all analyses except those for a few individual teams, the generalized matching law accounted for a majority of variance in play calling. The typical play-calling pattern reflected undermatching (suggesting imperfect sensitivity of play calling to yardage-gained reinforcers) and a bias for calling rushing plays. Bias was found to be a function of both the relative risk of turnovers and the relative variability in yards gained associated with passing versus rushing plays. The external validity of the matching analyses was supported by significant correlations between parameters of the generalized matching law and team success on offense and season winning percentage. These results illustrate the broad applicability of the generalized matching law to problems outside of the laboratory.     

Magnitude comparison revisited: An alternative approach to binary choice under uncertainty

Two generations of psychologists have been interested in understanding binary choice under uncertainty. In the 1970s and 1980s, researchers assumed that people rely on a two-stage magnitude comparison process to make these decisions (Banks, 1977; Moyer & Dumais, 1978). More recently, the focus has shifted to approaches that rely on probabilistic cues and simple heuristics (Gigerenzer & Goldstein, Psychological Review 103, 650-669, 1996). Here, we test competing predictions derived from these two very different approaches and conclude that the magnitude comparison process plays a central role in this task. In support of this conclusion, we present an experiment in which participants were timed as they decided which of two vehicles was more expensive. Pairs composed of one luxury vehicle (e.g., BMW 323i) and one nonluxury vehicle (e.g., Toyota 4Runner) were critical because the magnitude comparison approach correctly predicted that reaction times would decrease with subjective distance, whereas the heuristics approach incorrectly predicted that there would be no relation.     

Dynamics of choice: a tutorial

Choice may be defined as the allocation of behavior among activities. Since all activities take up time, choice is conveniently thought of as the allocation of time among activities, even if activities like pecking are most easily measured by counting. Since dynamics refers to change through time, the dynamics of choice refers to change of allocation through time. In the dynamics of choice, as in other dynamical systems that include feedback, change is away from perturbation and toward a steady state. Steady state or equilibrium is assessed on a longer time scale than change because change is only visible on a smaller time scale. When we compare laws of equilibrium, such as the matching law with laws of dynamics, two possibilities emerge. Self-similarity occurs when the same law can be seen across smaller time scales, with the result that the law at longer time scales may be understood as the expression of its application at smaller time scales. Reduction occurs when the dynamics at a small time scale are incommensurate with the dynamics at longer time scales. Then the process at the longer time scale is reduced to a qualitatively different process at the smaller time scale, as when choice is reduced to switching patterns. When reduction occurs, the dynamics at the longer time scale may be derived from the process at the smaller time scale, but not the other way around. Research at different time scales is facilitated by the molar view of behavior.     

The changing influences on commuting mode choice in urban England under Peak Car: A discrete choice modelling approach

The phenomenon of Peak Car has been defined over the past eight years as a plateau or fall in the level of car use in urban areas. Although Peak Car research to date has relied on population-level data, such macro-level trends can be disaggregated into many individual travel decisions. This research uses English survey data collected by the Department for Transport (DfT) in 2009 to test a range of variables influencing choice of commuting mode in residents of urban England. The variables tested are subdivided into spatial, demographic, level of service, and attitudinal. Multinomial logistic regression is used to test these variables individually and then in combination, producing a multivariate discrete choice model of commuting mode choice. The choice between commuting modes is fourfold: car, bus, train, and active modes. The results suggest that the relationship between income and car use is changing, as higher incomes are found to be associated with increased odds of choosing to commute by train or active modes rather than the car when other factors are controlled for. Attitudes to buses and active modes are also found to be influential.     

Executive functions in decision making: An individual differences approach

This individual differences study examined the relationships between three executive functions (updating, shifting, and inhibition), measured as latent variables, and performance on two cognitively demanding subtests of the Adult Decision Making Competence battery: Applying Decision Rules and Consistency in Risk Perception. Structural equation modelling showed that executive functions contribute differentially to performance in these two tasks, with Applying Decision Rules being mainly related to inhibition and Consistency in Risk Perception mainly associated to shifting. The results suggest that the successful application of decision rules requires the capacity to selectively focus attention and inhibit irrelevant (or no more relevant) stimuli. They also suggest that consistency in risk perception depends on the ability to shift between judgement contexts.     

Preference-based escalation: A new interpretation for the responsibility effect in escalating commitment and entrapment

A prominent finding in escalating commitment and entrapment research is the “responsibility effect”: people invest more in a losing course of action or persist with it for longer if they themselves initiated this action (responsibility) as opposed to if it was assigned to them. We argue that this effect is driven by participants’ preferences. Responsible participants usually prefer the chosen alternative since they have chosen it themselves. Non-responsible participants, in contrast, represent a mix of persons who either favor or disfavor the chosen alternative. In two experiments, we demonstrate that responsible participants favor the chosen course of action more strongly than non-responsible participants do, that these preferences facilitate reinvestment in and persistence with the chosen course of action, and that responsibility has no effect over and above this effect of preferences. Non-responsible participants preferring the chosen course of action made similar reinvestments and exhibited similar persistence as responsible participants.     

Comparison selection: An approach to the study of consumer judgment and choice

We introduce an alternative perspective on the study of consumer judgment and decision making, which is based on the notion that judgment and choice problems consist of comparisons that decision makers might select. Our new perspective proposes that if we can predict the likelihood that particular comparisons will become focal in a judgment or choice task, we will be able to gain a better understanding of and anticipate the resulting effect. Building on related literatures, we propose that comparison selection is driven by the task's latitude of acceptance (LOA) and comparison fluency (i.e., the overall ease of making that comparison). The task's LOA curve represents the range and concentration of potentially acceptable comparisons, whereas comparison fluency refers to the salience and ease of making the comparison. We illustrate our approach using previously studied problems (e.g., choice, variety seeking, the “jacket and calculator” problem, and contingent valuation) as well as new empirical tests.