词切分对语文学优生与学困生阅读影响的眼动研究

采用EyeLink II眼动仪,以小学二年级语文学优生和学困生为被试,考察词切分对句子阅读的影响.实验设置四种空格呈现条件:正常无空格条件、字间空格条件、词间空格条件和非词空格条件.研究表明:(1)小学二年级学生阅读词间空格文本、字间空格文本和正常无空格文本效果相同.(2)与语文学优生相比,学困生阅读任何条件的句子需要更多的注视时间和注视次数.非词空格呈现条件对学困生的干扰更大,表明学困生更依赖文本的低水平信息.文章最后探讨了汉语阅读的基本信息单元问题.     

An Investigation into the Processing of Lexicalized English Blend Words: Evidence from Lexical Decisions and Eye Movements During Reading

New words enter the language through several word formation processes [see Simonini (Engl J 55:752–757, 1966)]. One such process, blending, occurs when two source words are combined to represent a new concept (e.g., SMOG, BRUNCH, BLOG, and INFOMERCIAL). While there have been examinations of the structure of blends [see Gries (Linguistics 42:639–667, 2004) and Lehrer (Am Speech 73:3–28, 1998)], relatively little attention has been given to how lexicalized blends are recognized and if this process differs from other types of words. In the present study, blend words were matched to non-blend control words on length, familiarity, and frequency. Two tasks were used to examine blend processing: lexical decision and sentence reading. The results demonstrated that blend words were processed differently than non-blend control words. However, the nature of the effect varied as a function of task demands. Blends were recognized slower than control words in the lexical decision task but received shorter fixation durations when embedded in sentences.     

Resolving Conflicts in Natural and Grammatical Gender Agreement: Evidence from Eye Movements

The present research investigated the attraction phenomenon, which commonly occurs in the domain of production but is also apparent in comprehension. It particularly focused on its accessibility to conceptual influence, in analogy to previous findings in production in Hebrew (Deutsch and Dank, J Mem Lang, 60:112–143, 2009). The experiments made use of the contrast between grammatical and natural gender in Hebrew, using complex subject noun phrases containing head nouns and prepositional phrases with local nouns. Noun phrases were manipulated to produce (a) matches and mismatches in grammatical gender between heads and local nouns; and (b) inanimate nouns and animate nouns with natural gender that served either as head or as local nouns. These noun phrases were the subjects of sentences that ended with predicates agreeing in gender with the head noun, with the local noun, or both. The ungrammatical sentences were those in which the gender of the predicate and the head noun did not match. To assess the impact of conflicts in grammatical and natural gender on the time course of reading, participants’ eye movements were monitored. The results revealed clear disruptions in reading the predicate due to grammatical-gender mismatches with head and local nouns, in analogy to attraction in production. When the head nouns conveyed natural gender these effects were amplified, but variations in the natural gender of local nouns had negligible consequences. The results imply that comprehension and production are similarly sensitive to the control of grammatical agreement by grammatical and natural gender in subject noun phrases.     

Case marking in the Parsing of Complement Sentences: Evidence from Eye Movements

An eye-tracking experiment investigated the role of case-marking in parsing. We manipulated the case of pronouns in reduced complement sentences like I recognized you and your family would be unhappy here and I recognized she and her family would be unhappy here , in which the nominative pronoun she immediately disambiguates the sentences, in contrast to the ambiguous you . The nominative pronoun she disambiguates the sentence because I recognised she is ungrammatical, and thus she and her family must be the subject of an embedded sentence and not the NP-object of the preceding verb. Subjects took longer to read she and her family than you and your family during initial processing. The pattern reversed at the disambiguating phrase would be . Unambiguous control sentences containing the complementizer that did not produce case-marking effects. These results demonstrate very rapid effects of case-marking on parsing. Either case information is used immediately, or it is employed after an extremely short delay. We discuss implications for current theories of parsing.     

Pronominal Resolution and Gap Filling in Agrammatic Aphasia: Evidence from Eye Movements

This paper reports the results of three studies examining comprehension and real-time processing of pronominal (Experiment 1) and Wh-movement (Experiments 2 and 3) structures in agrammatic and unimpaired speakers using eyetracking. We asked the following questions: (a) Is off-line comprehension of these constructions impaired in agrammatic listeners?, (b) Do agrammatic, like unimpaired, listeners show eye movement patterns indicative of automatic pronominal reference resolution and/or gap-filling?, and (c) Do eyetracking patterns differ when sentences are correctly versus incorrectly interpreted, or do automatic processes prevail in spite of comprehension failure? Results showed that off-line comprehension of both pronoun and Wh-movement structures was impaired in our agrammatic cohort. However, the aphasic participants showed visual evidence of real-time reference resolution as they processed binding structures, including both pronouns and reflexives, as did our unimpaired control participants. Similarly, both the patients and the control participants showed patterns consistent with successful gap filling during processing of Wh-movement structures. For neither pronominal nor movement structures did we find evidence of delayed processing. Notably, these patterns were found for the aphasic participants even when they incorrectly interpreted target sentences, with the exception of object relative constructions. For incorrectly interpreted sentences, we found end of sentence lexical competition effects. These findings indicate that aberrant lexical integration, rather than representational deficits or generally slowed processing, may underlie agrammatic aphasic listener’s comprehension failure.     

Effect of Intentional Sentences on Visual Attention to Human and Animal Pictures: Evidence from Eye Movements

This study explored the effect of specific vs. general sentences, describing intentional aspects of humans and animals on visual attention on face and body regions. A picture-sentence verification paradigm was used and eye movements were recorded as subjects looked at displays in the absence of any overt task. Results indicated higher visual attention to the body regions for sentences expressing specific intentional states for human pictures and not for animal pictures. A strong preference to look at the body regions in general was observed compared to the face regions. Results suggest that understanding intentional states of other agents requires focusing visual attention on the body region compared to the face region. The findings are discussed in terms of interaction of intentional states and visual attention.     

Phonologic Mediation Is Fundamental to Reading: Evidence from Beginning Readers

Three tasks were employed to investigate the role of assembled phonology in beginning readers. In two proofreading tasks, children had more trouble finding pseudohomophone misspellings (stimuli with phonology identical to that of a word) than control misspellings (stimuli that do not share their phonology with a word). In a lexical-decision task, they had more trouble deciding that pseudohomophone misspellings were non-words than deciding that control misspellings were non-words. Finally, in a semantic-categorization task, children had more trouble rejecting pseudohomophone misspellings as a member of a designated category than rejecting control misspellings. Differences between more and less advanced readers occurred, but they need not be attributed to differential use of phonology in word recognition. Instead, they were explained in terms of a difference between reader groups in spelling-verification efficiency. The results of the present studies on beginning reading parallel studies on skilled reading by Van Orden et al. (1992). The main conclusion was that assembled phonology plays an important role in word recognition in beginning readers.     

Saccadic Eye Movements in Parkinson's Disease: I. Delayed Saccades

The saccadic eye movements of nine patients with Parkinson's disease were compared to those of nine age-matched controls in two paradigms generating volitional saccades. In both paradigms, subjects had to make delayed saccades to peripheral LED targets: a peripheral target appeared 700 msec before a buzzer sounded, the buzzer being the signal to make a saccade to the target. In the first paradigm (“centre-off”), the fixation target was extinguished simultaneously with buzzer onset. In the second (“centre-remain”) it was not extinguished until 1000 msec later. The results showed that for outward saccades in both paradigms, there was no difference between Parkinsonian patients and controls, but saccadic latencies were significantly shorter in the “centre-remain” paradigm. The initial outward saccades were indistinguishable from the normal, reflex saccades of the same subjects. However, saccades returning to the centre (a type of remembered target saccade) were hypometric and showed multistepping. Both effects were more pronounced in patients with Parkinson's disease. The significance of these findings in terms of current hypotheses about the nature of the Parkinsonian saccadic deficit is discussed.     

Impaired Speech Perception in Poor Readers: Evidence from Hearing and Speech Reading

The performance of 14 poor readers on an audiovisual speech perception task was compared with 14 normal subjects matched on chronological age (CA) and 14 subjects matched on reading age (RA). The task consisted of identifying synthetic speech varying in place of articulation on an acoustic 9-point continuum between /ba/ and /da/ (Massaro & Cohen, 1983). The acoustic speech events were factorially combined with the visual articulation of /ba/, /da/, or none. In addition, the visual-only articulation of /ba/ or /da/ was presented. The results showed that (1) poor readers were less categorical than CA and RA in the identification of the auditory speech events and (2) that they were worse in speech reading. This convergence between the deficits clearly suggests that the auditory speech processing difficulty of poor readers is speech specific and relates to the processing of phonological information.     

Neuter is not Common in Dutch: Eye Movements Reveal Asymmetrical Gender Processing

Native speakers of languages with transparent gender systems can use gender cues to anticipate upcoming words. To examine whether this also holds true for a non-transparent two-way gender system, i.e. Dutch, eye movements were monitored as participants followed spoken instructions to click on one of four displayed items on a screen (e.g., Klik op $de_{COM}$ rode appel $_{COM}$ , ‘Click on the $_\mathrm{COM}$ red apple $_\mathrm{COM}$ ’). The items contained the target, a colour- and/or gender-matching competitor, and two unrelated distractors. A mixed-effects regression analysis revealed that the presence of a colour-matching and/or gender-matching competitor significantly slowed the process of finding the target. The gender effect, however, was only observed for common nouns, reflecting the fact that neuter gender-marking cannot disambiguate as all Dutch nouns become neuter when used as diminutives. The gender effect for common nouns occurred before noun onset, suggesting that gender information is, at least partially, activated automatically before encountering the noun.     

视觉搜索中空间不对称性的眼动研究

采用视觉搜索任务对33名大学生在不同视野中目标搜索过程的眼睛运动进行记录,以探讨不同视野位置的视觉搜索的差异性。研究结果表明,视觉搜索存在明显的空间不对称性,它主要体现在左右视野之间的差异上,具体表现在搜索反应时、平均注视时间以及眼睛跳动等方面。视觉搜索中存在很强的策略,其中主要为水平搜索或垂直搜索,因此,长期的练习和习惯也将影响视觉搜索过程。     

数量对时间知觉的影响——来自汉语数字的证据

本研究的目的在于探讨汉语数字对时间知觉的影响。采用二分试验程序,以400ms和1200ms作为标准短时间和标准长时间,三个实验中屏幕分别呈现阿拉伯数字(1、5和9),汉语小写数字(一五和九),汉语大写数字(壹伍和玖),让被试估计数字的呈现时间更接近于标准长时间还是标准短时间。结果显示三种实验条件下被试均具有低估小数字的呈现时间和高估大数字呈现时间的倾向。这个结果表明汉语数字也会对时间知觉产生影响,汉字形式的数字可以纳入到综合的数量理论体系之中。     

图形视觉与心理表象眼动模式的比较研究

本研究通过比较图形视觉和心理表象以及不同认知框架下表象加工的眼动参数,揭示图形视觉加工和心理表象加工的特点.结果表明,从视知觉到视觉心理表象,眼动被币新编码,眼动模式更加简洁,视觉心理表象具有一定的概括性;认知框架影响视觉心理表象加工的眼动模式.     

Eye movement control during reading: Evidence for direct control

In three experiments, subjects read text as their eye movements were monitored and display changes in the text were made contingent upon the eye movements. In one experiment, a window of text moved in synchrony with the eyes. In one condition, the size of the window was constant from fixation to fixation, while in the other condition the size of the window varied from fixation to fixation. In the other experiments, a visual mask was presented at the end of each saccade which delayed the onset of the text, and the length of the delay was varied. The pattern of eye movements was influenced by both the size of the window and the delay of the onset of the text, even when the window size or text delay was varying from fixation to fixation. However, there was also evidence that saccade length was affected by the size of the window on the prior fixation and that certain decisions to move the eye are programmed either before the fixation begins or are programmed during the fixation but without regard to the text fixated on. The results thus provide support for a mixed control model of eye movements in reading, in which decisions about when and where to move the eyes are based on information from the current fixation, the prior fixations, and possibly, other sources as well.     

Task Specificity in the Use of Words in Mathematics: Evidence from Bilingual Problem Solvers

Mathematics is often said to be a different language in itself. Three experiments were conducted to show some evidence for this common notion. It was hypothesized that in math word problem solving, people interpret words like “more” and “less” in specialized ways that are specific to the task of math word problem solving. Subjects were given texts with quantitative information, but the texts were framed either as math problems or as stories, and were written either in English or Filipino. Subjects were then asked to verify statements that describe quantitative relations given in the text; these relations either stated an exact or an inexact quantitative difference. The verification responses and verification times in three experiments show that subjects more often accepted the inexact difference as true when the text was framed as a story compared to when framed as a problem. These results support the hypothesis that the use of the specialized meaning is specific to the task of solving word problems in math. The data were equivocal about the role of the language used in the operation of this knowledge. The results were discussed in terms of the implications of specificity of knowledge, context sensitivity, and the possible role of language use in the process of learning and developing mathematical knowledge.     

The Inner Eye and the Inner Scribe of Visuo-spatial Working Memory: Evidence from Developmental Fractionation

Abstract

Evidence for two major hypotheses that attempt to explain the development in memory span with age is reviewed: the identification time hypothesis and the rehearsal hypothesis. The rehearsal hypothesis is also strongly related to the recent application of the working memory model to memory development. In this model, rehearsal is assumed to occur from an extremely young age. This assumption is critically evaluated. It is concluded that there is no strong support for the identification time hypothesis, except as a facet of familiarity. Neither was there good evidence that very young children use verbal rehearsal, although it did appear to be a factor later on. A revised model is proposed, based on three factors. The first is a speech perception system and phonological store; the second is a speech output system which can be used for sublexical segmentation and later rehearsal. The third system is long-term memory with links to both the speech perception and speech output systems. These links enable active strategies to be developed.