The influence of time units on the flexibility of the spatial numerical association of response codes effect

The Spatial Numerical/Temporal Association of Response Codes (SNARC/STEARC) effects are considered evidence of the association between number or time and space, respectively. As the SNARC effect was proposed by Dehaene, Bossini, and Giraux in 1993, several studies have suggested that different tasks and cultural factors can affect the flexibility of the SNARC effect. This study explored the influence of time units on the flexibility of the SNARC effect via materials with Arabic numbers, which were suffixed with time units and subjected to magnitude comparison tasks. Experiment 1 replicated the SNARC effect for numbers and the STEARC effect for time units. Experiment 2 explored the flexibility of the SNARC effect when numbers were attached to time units, which either conflicted with the numerical magnitude or in which the time units were the same or different. Experiment 3 explored whether the SNARC effect of numbers was stable when numbers were near the transition of two adjacent time units. The results indicate that the SNARC effect was flexible when the numbers were suffixed with time units: Time units influenced the direction of the SNARC effect in a way which could not be accounted for by the mathematical differences between the time units and numbers. This suggests that the SNARC effect is not obligatory and can be easily adapted or inhibited based on the current context.     

言语编码和视空编码在时间—空间联结中的作用

时间和空间存在反应编码联合效应（spatial—temporal association of response codes effect, STEARC）,该效应的编码是视觉空间性还是言语性还存在争议。本研究借鉴Georges（2015）的研究方式,以2秒内的时距为刺激,实验1采用言语反应和空间反应,词语和空间与时距的关系分为一致和不一致。结果发现言语反应时,短时距用“左边”反应快,长时距用“右边”反应快,空间反应时,时距和空间的一致性效应消失,表明言语编码参与两种反应形式的STEARC效应。实验2将词语改为箭头朝向（视觉编码条件）,发现视觉编码和空间编码存在于相对应的反应形式中。研究表明时空关系的编码形式与具体任务要求有关。     

数字加工任务影响时距知觉的数字效应

本研究采用复制时距和数字加工双任务,探讨数字大小影响时距知觉的机制。实验首先呈现不同时距的圆点,然后让被试按键复制圆点呈现的时距,与此同时,对屏幕上出现的数字进行命名(实验1)、奇偶数判断(实验2)、大小判断(实验3)。实验结果发现对数字进行奇偶数判断时,数字大小对时距知觉没有影响;进行数字命名和大小判断任务时,数字大小对时距知觉都产生了影响,并且时距不同,数字大小对时距知觉的影响也不同。该结果表明时距知觉的数字效应与数字加工任务和时距长短有关,呈现出动态变化的过程。     

The SNARC effect: an instance of the Simon effect?

Our aim was to investigate the relations between the Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Codes (SNARC) effect and the Simon effect. In Experiment 1 participants were required to make a parity judgment to numbers from 1 to 9 (without 5), by pressing a left or a right key. The numbers were presented to either the left or right side of fixation. Results showed the Simon effect (left-side stimuli were responded to faster with the left hand than with the right hand whereas right-side stimuli were responded to faster with the right hand), and the SNARC effect (smaller numbers were responded to faster with the left hand than with the right hand, whereas larger numbers were responded to faster with the right hand). No interaction was found between the Simon and SNARC effects, suggesting that they combine additively. In Experiment 2 the temporal distance between formation of the task-relevant non-spatial stimulus code and the task-irrelevant stimulus spatial code was increased. As in Experiment 1, results showed the presence of the Simon and SNARC effects but no interaction between them. Moreover, we found a regular Simon effect for faster RTs, and a reversed Simon effect for longer RTs. In contrast, the SNARC effect did not vary as a function of RT. Taken together, the results of the two experiments show that the SNARC effect does not simply constitute a variant of the Simon effect. This is considered to be evidence that number representation and space representation rest on different neural (likely parietal) circuits.     

Beyond left and right: Automaticity and flexibility of number-space associations

Close links exist between the processing of numbers and the processing of space: relatively small numbers are preferentially associated with a left-sided response while relatively large numbers are associated with a right-sided response (the SNARC effect). Previous work demonstrated that the SNARC effect is triggered in an automatic manner and is highly flexible. Besides the left-right dimension, numbers associate with other spatial response mappings such as close/far responses, where small numbers are associated with a close response and large numbers with a far response. In two experiments we investigate the nature of this association. Associations between magnitude and close/far responses were observed using a magnitude-irrelevant task (Experiment 1: automaticity) and using a variable referent task (Experiment 2: flexibility). While drawing a strong parallel between both response mappings, the present results are also informative with regard to the question about what type of processing mechanism underlies both the SNARC effect and the association between numerical magnitude and close/far response locations.     

Loudness counts: Interactions between loudness,number magnitude,and space

ATOM (a theory of magnitude) suggests that magnitude information of different formats (numbers, space, and time) is processed within a generalized magnitude network. In this study we investigated whether loudness, as a possible indicator of intensity and magnitude, interacts with the processing of numbers. Small and large numbers, spoken in a quiet and a loud voice, were simultaneously presented to the left and right ear (Experiments 1a and 1b). Participants judged whether the number presented to the left or right ear was louder or larger. Responses were faster when the smaller number was spoken in a quiet voice, and the larger number in a loud voice. Thus, task-irrelevant numerical information influenced the processing of loudness and vice versa. This bi-directional link was also confirmed by classical SNARC paradigms (spatial–numerical association of response codes; Experiments 2a–2c) when participants again judged the magnitude or loudness of separately presented stimuli. In contrast, no loudness–number association was found in a parity judgment task. Regular SNARC effects were found in the magnitude and parity judgment task, but not in the loudness judgment task. Instead, in the latter task, response side was associated with loudness. Possible explanations for these results are discussed.     

时序表征的空间特性

时间是个高度抽象的概念,必须依靠具体的、易感知的事物进行表征。时间表征本质上是隐喻性的,而时间的空间隐喻是时间隐喻表征的原型。受到数字空间表征研究的启示,发现时序表征同样具有空间特性。时序表征具有空间特性具有一定的普遍性,但是在具体的水平或垂直空间维度、“左-右”或“右-左”空间方向上存在一定的灵活性;此外时序能够导致空间注意的转移。     

空间-时间联合编码效应：来自手动和眼动证据

本研究探讨汉语背景下不同反应方式（手动,眼动）、不同方位（水平,垂直）上空间-时间联合编码效应（STEARC效应）存在的可能性。四个实验均采用两类时间词语诱发被试的时间表征,采用2（时间：过去、将来）×2（反应手/眼跳方向：左、右/上、下）的被试内设计。结果表明汉语背景下的人们将过去和身体左边（上）联系在一起,把将来和右边（下）联系在一起,人们存在自左向右和自上而下的STEARC效应,这种效应不存在手动和眼动的分离,人们对时间的表征不仅是一条时间线,更是一个心理时间地图。     

Implicit response-irrelevant number information triggers the SNARC effect: Evidence using a neural overlap paradigm

There is evidence from the SNARC (spatial–numerical association of response codes) effect and NDE (numerical distance effect) that number activates spatial representations. Most of this evidence comes from tasks with explicit reference to number, whether through presentation of Arabic digits (SNARC) or through magnitude decisions to nonsymbolic representations (NDE). Here, we report four studies that use the neural overlap paradigm developed by Fias, Lauwereyns, and Lammertyn (2001) to examine whether the presentation of implicit and task-irrelevant numerosity information (nonsymbolic arrays and auditory numbers) is enough to activate a spatial representation of number. Participants were presented with either numerosity arrays (1–9 circles or triangles) to which they made colour (Experiment 1) or orientation (Experiment 2) judgements, or auditory numbers coupled with an on-screen stimulus to which they made a colour (Experiment 3) or orientation (Experiment 4) judgement. SNARC effects were observed only for the orientation tasks. Following the logic of Fias et al., we argue that this SNARC effect occurs as a result of overlap in parietal processing for number and orientation judgements irrespective of modality. Furthermore, we found stronger SNARC effects in the small number range (1–4) than in the larger number range (6–9) for both nonsymbolic displays and auditory numbers. These results suggest that quantity is extracted (and interferes with responses in the orientation task) but this is not exact for the entire number range. We discuss a number of alternative models and mechanisms of numerical processing that may account for such effects.     

Implicit response-irrelevant number information triggers the SNARC effect: Evidence using a neural overlap paradigm

There is evidence from the SNARC (spatial-numerical association of response codes) effect and NDE (numerical distance effect) that number activates spatial representations. Most of this evidence comes from tasks with explicit reference to number, whether through presentation of Arabic digits (SNARC) or through magnitude decisions to nonsymbolic representations (NDE). Here, we report four studies that use the neural overlap paradigm developed by Fias, Lauwereyns, and Lammertyn (2001) to examine whether the presentation of implicit and task-irrelevant numerosity information (nonsymbolic arrays and auditory numbers) is enough to activate a spatial representation of number. Participants were presented with either numerosity arrays (1-9 circles or triangles) to which they made colour (Experiment 1) or orientation (Experiment 2) judgements, or auditory numbers coupled with an on-screen stimulus to which they made a colour (Experiment 3) or orientation (Experiment 4) judgement. SNARC effects were observed only for the orientation tasks. Following the logic of Fias et al., we argue that this SNARC effect occurs as a result of overlap in parietal processing for number and orientation judgements irrespective of modality. Furthermore, we found stronger SNARC effects in the small number range (1-4) than in the larger number range (6-9) for both nonsymbolic displays and auditory numbers. These results suggest that quantity is extracted (and interferes with responses in the orientation task) but this is not exact for the entire number range. We discuss a number of alternative models and mechanisms of numerical processing that may account for such effects.     

空间-时间关联的中介共同表征结构:来自反转STEARC效应的证据

通过3个双任务实验(诱导任务和特征任务)探讨空间-时间联合编码(STEARC)效应的加工机制。实验1采用时间信息作为诱导任务材料,实验2采用空间信息作为诱导任务材料,在特征任务中都发现映射不一致组被试(看到过去/左侧刺激时按右键反应,看到未来/右侧刺激时按左键反应)出现反转STEARC效应,映射一致组被试表现出常规的STEARC效应,表明从时间信息加工到空间反应过程符合中介共同表征结构。实验3分离两种任务的反应方式(手动和眼动),发现不一致映射规则下,被试仍然表现出常规的STEARC效应,表明这种中介共同表征结构存在特定联结效应,即在不同反应器中出现时间和空间相互独立的表征结构。总体而言,研究支持空间-时间关联符合中介共同表征结构,并且这种关联中存在反应器特定联结效应。     

Moving the eyes along the mental number line: comparing SNARC effects with saccadic and manual responses

Bimanual parityjudgments about numerically small (large) digits are faster with the left (right) hand, even though parity is unrelated to numerical magnitude per se (the SNARC effect; Dehaene, Bossini, & Giraux, 1993). According to one model, this effect reflects a space-related representation of numerical magnitudes (mental number line) with a genuine left-to-right orientation. Alternatively, it may simply reflect an overlearned motor association between numbers and manual responses--as, for example, on typewriters or computer keyboards--in which case it should be weaker or absent with effectors whose horizontal response component is less systematically associated with individual numbers. Two experiments involving comparisons of saccadic and manual parity judgment tasks clearly support the first view; they also establish a vertical SNARC effect, suggesting that our magnitude representation resembles a number map, rather than a number line.     

纯小数加工的心理机制:选择通达还是平行通达?

采用数字线索提示的目标觉察范式,以60名在校大学生与研究生为被试,设计3个实验探讨纯小数(整数部分是零的小数,例如0.2)的加工及其与空间表征的联系。实验1探讨纯小数作为线索时是否能引起空间注意的空间-数字反应编码联合效应(Spatial Numerical Association of Response Codes,SNARC),结果发现,纯小数数量大小的加工可以引起空间注意的SNARC效应;实验2探讨纯小数的加工是否会同时激活小数点后对应的自然数,结果发现,对纯小数数量大小相同、小数点后对应的自然数是否有0(例如0.2和0.20,0.4和0.40)的加工能引起空间注意的转移;实验3比较纯小数的加工对纯小数本身及小数点后对应的自然数激活强度,结果发现,在纯小数数量大小判断和纯小数小数点后对应的自然数数量大小判断冲突的条件下,纯小数的加工未能引起注意的SNARC效应。该研究结果表明,在目标觉察范式中,纯小数的加工采取了平行通达的方式,引发了注意的SNARC效应,并且纯小数空间注意的转移受到纯小数本身以及对应的自然数的影响。     

不同加工深度非符号数量信息的SNARC效应：眼动证据

通过两项眼动实验考察了个体在水平和垂直方向上对点阵数量进行较浅(浏览)和较深(数字比较)程度加工时的数量空间表征联系。结果显示：点阵在水平方向上出现了SNARC效应, 且SNARC效应的大小不受加工深浅的影响, 而在垂直方向上没有出现SNARC效应。表明(1)点阵数量SNARC效应的稳定性不如阿拉伯数字; (2)方向对点阵SNARC效应的影响更大, 加工程度的影响则不明显。结合加工程度、空间方向和点阵数量的自身特征等对研究发现进行了讨论, 认为数字的空间表征在多个因素的共同影响下可能呈现出多样性。     

Do monkeys think in metaphors? Representations of space and time in monkeys and humans

Research on the relationship between the representation of space and time has produced two contrasting proposals. ATOM posits that space and time are represented via a common magnitude system, suggesting a symmetrical relationship between space and time. According to metaphor theory, however, representations of time depend on representations of space asymmetrically. Previous findings in humans have supported metaphor theory. Here, we investigate the relationship between time and space in a nonverbal species, by testing whether non-human primates show space–time interactions consistent with metaphor theory or with ATOM. We tested two rhesus monkeys and 16 adult humans in a nonverbal task that assessed the influence of an irrelevant dimension (time or space) on a relevant dimension (space or time). In humans, spatial extent had a large effect on time judgments whereas time had a small effect on spatial judgments. In monkeys, both spatial and temporal manipulations showed large bi-directional effects on judgments. In contrast to humans, spatial manipulations in monkeys did not produce a larger effect on temporal judgments than the reverse. Thus, consistent with previous findings, human adults showed asymmetrical space–time interactions that were predicted by metaphor theory. In contrast, monkeys showed patterns that were more consistent with ATOM.     

物理大小和面积的无意识空间表征

意识水平的研究发现,数字量的比较机制与物理刺激比较的机制是一样的;在无意识水平上的研究发现,数字加工存在无意识语义启动现象。我们假设,在数字的物理特性的比较任务中可能存在无意识启动效应和类SNARC效应。实验一的数字比较任务和数字的物理大小比较任务发现,在33毫秒的无意识启动条件下,数字语义比较任务和数字物理大小比较任务中都发现了类SNARC效应、启动效应以及Stroop效应。实验二的数字覆盖面积比较任务中发现,在33毫秒的启动水平,数字比较与数字覆盖面积的比较任务中均存在SNARC效应、Stroop效应和启动效应。     

The effect of working memory load on the SNARC effect: Maybe tasks have a word to say

We investigated the effect of working memory load on the SNARC (spatial–numerical association of response codes) effect under different number judgment tasks (parity judgment and magnitude comparison), using a novel dual task. Instead of exerting load over the whole block of number judgment trials, in this dual task, number judgment trials were inserted into each interstimulus interval of an n-back task, which served as the working memory load. We varied both load type (verbal and spatial) and amount (1-load, 2-load, and 3-load). The results indicated that the SNARC effect disappeared even under the 1-load condition for a parity judgment, regardless of the type of load. However, during the magnitude comparison task, the SNARC effect increased with increasing load amounts under spatial load conditions; under verbal load conditions, the SNARC effect decreased with increasing amounts of load, and disappeared during the 3-load task. The difference between the parity and magnitude tasks was not attributable to the interval stimuli or task switching. These findings confirm that different spatial–numerical associations for comparing numerical magnitudes and judgments of parity have different needs with respect to working memory resources.     

身体形式和社会环境对SNARC效应的影响:基于具身认知观的理解

目前SNARC效应在认知心理学领域得到了广泛研究,然而较少有研究考察身体形式和社会环境对SNARC效应的影响.研究以127名在校大学生为被试,使用奇偶判断任务、Go/No-go任务以及合作情境下的Go/No-go任务依次展开了三个研究,拟揭示身体形式和社会环境对SNARC效应的影响.实验一要求被试双手完成奇偶判断任务,结果出现了经典的SNARC效应.实验二要求被试完成Go/No-go任务,并让被试单手(左手或右手)对奇数或偶数进行反应,结果SNARC效应没有出现,这表明认知主体的身体形式对SNARC效应产生了影响.实验三要求被试合作完成Go/No-go任务,该实验按照被试所坐的位置(左边和右边)和反应手(左手和右手),设计了四个条件,结果只有身体位置和反应手完全一致时出现了 SNARC 效应.以上结果一方面表明了具身认知观的合理性,另外一方面扩展了以往对SNARC效应本质的理解.     

SNARC效应: 现状、理论与建议

SNARC效应是当对数字进行奇偶判断时,即使数的奇偶性与数的大小无关,但右手（左手）对相对大（小）的数的反应快。首先介绍SNARC效应的起源和理论解释,然后总结SNARC效应的特性,论述SNARC效应和Simon效应以及MARC 效应的关系,并对SNARC效应的脑机制进行了概述,最后提出3个有待深入研究的问题：（1）SNARC效应的加工处理机制;（2）SANRC效应的理论探索;（3）SNARC效应的本质。     

Time counts: Bidirectional interaction between time and numbers in human adults

Number is known for influencing time processing, but to what extent time influences number in human adults is unclear. We investigated possible bidirectional interactions (number on time and time on number) using a novel Stroop-like task; participants compared numbers or temporal durations in congruent (larger number presented for longer duration) or incongruent conditions (smaller number presented for longer duration). Time and number tasks were presented in different blocks (Experiment 1) or within the same block of trials with task instructions provided at the offset of the stimuli (Experiment 2). Analyses of response times (RTs) and their distribution revealed that number affected time from early RTs, and time affected number at late RTs – an asymmetry observed only when time and number tasks were presented in separate blocks. Thus, carefully chosen tasks and appropriate data analysis can reveal bidirectionality between time and number, consistent with shared magnitude or decision mechanisms.