一岁半到二岁半婴儿交涉行为与交换性行为的形成──中日婴幼儿“所有”行为的结构及其发展研究之一

本研究分别在中国和日本对一岁半到二岁半的婴儿进行自然观察,分析了婴儿之间围绕着某些资源而发生的交涉行为和交换性行为的发生过程及其发展上特点。主要结果有①中日婴儿到2岁左右时开始出现交涉行为和交换性行为,但在该年龄阶段并不占有主导地位。②该年龄阶段婴儿的交换性行为还不能说是完整意义上的交换,属于“前交换行为”。③对于获得对方的东西来说,该年龄阶段婴儿的交涉行为和交换性行为并不是很有效的方式。④我们进行观察的中国幼儿园托儿班的婴儿其交涉行为和交换性行为的出现早于日本保育园的婴儿,但从交涉行为出现的比例来看,日本婴儿采用交涉行为的倾向比中国婴儿更明显。     

Parental Alienation Disorder and DSM-V

Although parental alienation disorder (PAD) is a serious mental condition affecting many children and their families, it is not an official diagnosis or even mentioned in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. This article presents arguments for considering PAD a diagnosis: PAD is a prototypical example of a relational disorder; the phenomenon of PAD is almost universally accepted by mental health professionals; PAD is a valid and reliable construct; adopting criteria for PAD will promote systematic research; adopting criteria will reduce the misuse of the concept of PAD; and adopting criteria will improve the treatment of children with this disorder.     

Physician-assisted dying: review of issues and roles for health psychologists.

The authors review the recent empirical and theoretical literature on physician-assisted dying (PAD) since implementation of the Oregon Death With Dignity Act (ODDA) in 1997. The authors provide a brief overview of end-of-life practices; consider ethical and practical issues regarding PAD; outline governments' acts and health care organizations' current codified principles regarding PAD, including the American Psychological Association's goal to increase the visibility of psychology in end-of-life issues; examine recent data pertinent to ODDA implementation and psychologists' attitudes regarding PAD; and outline potential roles for health psychologists responding to requests for PAD and implementing PAD (where it is legal). Health psychologists can assume at least 4 roles regarding PAD: (a) policy advocates, (b) educators, (c) practitioners, and (d) researchers.     

Primary care physician attitudes and values toward end-of-life care and physician-assisted death

This study explores how primary care physician attitudes toward physician-assisted death (PAD) are related to their personal values toward end-of-life care and PAD. A group of 810 Michigan family physicians, internists, and general practitioners, divided into 4 typology groups by their intention toward participating in PAD, rated their attitudes toward PAD, along with their values and preferences for their own end-of-life care. Respondents who most objected to PAD were less likely to have executed an advance directive and more likely to have values promoting continued life-sustaining treatment in their own terminal care. Furthermore, a significant number of physicians, who had strong values against their own withdrawal of treatment in terminal care, were opposed to the withdrawing or withholding of life-sustaining treatment in patient care. Considerations of personal physician values are relevant in the discussion of PAD and the withdrawal of treatment in terminal care.     

Physician Aid-in-Dying and Suicide Prevention in Psychiatry: A Moral Crisis?

Involuntary psychiatric commitment for suicide prevention and physician aid-in-dying (PAD) in terminal illness combine to create a moral dilemma. If PAD in terminal illness is permissible, it should also be permissible for some who suffer from nonterminal psychiatric illness: suffering provides much of the justification for PAD, and the suffering in mental illness can be as severe as in physical illness. But involuntary psychiatric commitment to prevent suicide suggests that the suffering of persons with mental illness does not justify ending their own lives, ruling out PAD. Since both practices have compelling underlying justifications, the most reasonable accommodation might seem to be to allow PAD for persons with mental illness whose suffering is severe enough to justify self-killing, but prohibit PAD for persons whose suffering is less severe. This compromise, however, would require the articulation of standards by which persons’ mental as well as physical suffering could be evaluated. Doing so would present a serious philosophical challenge.     

The role of individual bargaining behavior in the pay setting process: A pilot study

A model of initial salary detemination for professional and managerial employees is developed. That part of the model which concentrates on the role of employee salary negotiation behaviors and attitudes was investigated using a sample of 117 individuals. Significant variance in salary bargaining attitudes and behaviors was found; attitudinal and demographic differences between negotiators and non-negotiators were determined. Additionally, negotiating behavior was found to be positively related to salary, but only slightly related to salary growth.     

Myopic prediction, self-destructive secrecy, and the unexpected benefits of revealing final deadlines in negotiation

Three studies explored the psychology of social prediction by examining negotiators’ predictions of the effects of time pressure and comparing those predictions with actual outcomes. The results show that revealing final deadlines in negotiation can lead to better outcomes for the negotiator with the deadline because revelation speeds concessions by the other side. However, both naïve and experienced negotiators consistently predicted the opposite. As a result, when given the choice of revealing their final deadlines to their negotiating opponents, negotiators chose not to. The reasons for these erroneous expectations can be explained by myopic processes of prediction in which people anticipate the effects of constraints like deadlines more on their own behavior than on the behavior of others.     

What's good for the goose may not be as good for the gander: the benefits of self-monitoring for men and women in task groups and dyadic conflicts

The authors posit that women can rely on self-monitoring to overcome negative gender stereotypes in certain performance contexts. In a study of mixed-sex task groups, the authors found that female group members who were high self-monitors were considered more influential and more valuable contributors than women who were low self-monitors. Men benefited relatively less from self-monitoring behavior. In an experimental study of dyadic negotiations, the authors found that women who were high self-monitors performed better than women who were low self-monitors, particularly when they were negotiating over a fixed pool of resources, whereas men did not benefit as much from self-monitoring. Further analyses suggest that high self-monitoring women altered their behavior in these negotiations--when their partner behaved assertively, they increased their level of assertiveness, whereas men and low self-monitoring women did not alter their behavior.     

SOCIAL VALIDATION OF COMPONENT BEHAVIORS OF FOLLOWING INSTRUCTIONS,ACCEPTING CRITICISM,AND NEGOTIATING

This study evaluated whether behaviors often taught as part of social skills training are judged favorably by others. Community judges evaluated the performances of people in various situations requiring one of three social skills: following instructions, accepting criticism, and negotiating to resolve conflicts. These skills were displayed in videotaped scenes by actors with and without mental retardation who acted out roles that had different types of authority relationships, and when different components or clusters of behavior (nonverbal, specific verbal, or general verbal behaviors) were performed well or poorly. The highest ratings by judges were of videotaped scenes that depicted correct use of all behaviors, regardless of which skill was being examined, whether or not the actor had mental retardation, or what the relationship was between the two actors. The lowest ratings were of videotaped scenes that depicted poor performance of all behaviors, and intermediate ratings were obtained when only some of the behaviors were performed poorly. These results, as well as the verbal responses of judges to questions, indicated that the different behaviors commonly used in teaching the skills of following instructions, accepting criticism, and negotiating are relevant to judgment of social performance, and are likely to be reinforced and maintained by social contingencies.     

谈判中的时间因素

研究时间因素对谈判的影响有利于提高人们对时间重要性的认识,有效谈判策略的运用和整合结果的实现。时间因素对谈判者认知、行为和谈判结果的影响具体表现在：时间压力会降低谈判者的认知动机,使谈判者更加依赖认知启发式;暂停和中场休息是否会为谈判带来积极影响应该视不同的谈判事件和不同的心理状态而定;拉大谈判与结果实现之间的时间距离会提高谈判的共同结果,这可以从折扣效应和建构水平理论中得到解释。将来的谈判研究会进一步从时间向空间拓展     

The culture‐negotiation link.

Scholars have only recently begun to assess the strength with which culture affects negotiator communication, as compared with contextual or structural features of business negotiations. Although prior studies reveal important cross‐cultural differences in national negotiating style, they may not help us understand intercultural (mixed‐culture) settings. The crucial question is how heavily are international negotiators influenced by their own cultural values? When negotiating with a culturally disparate partner, what are the separate and cumulative effects of culture and contextual variables on negotiator communication? To answer these questions, the effect of culture (here, individualism‐collectivism) on integrative (information exchange) and distributive (fixed‐sum errors) negotiating is assessed in 32 intercultural dyads. In addition, the contextual effects of role (buyer vs. seller), preconceptions about negotiating (anticipated competition), and mutual adaptation (interdependence in information exchange) are examined. Preliminary results suggest that role requirements influence negotiators more heavily than culture. Supplemental analyses point to some potentially interesting buyer‐seller differences and suggest that information exchange is more a function of reciprocity than of cultural values.     

Effects of visual roll on steering control and gaze behavior in a motorcycle simulator

The goal of this study was to examine the effects of visual roll tilt on gaze and riding behavior when negotiating a bend using a motorcycle simulator. To this end, experienced motorcyclists rode along a track with a series of right and left turns whilst the degree of visual roll tilt was manipulated in three different conditions. Gaze behavior was analyzed by using the tangent point as a dynamic spatial reference; the deviation of gaze to this particular point was computed in both the horizontal and vertical directions. Steering control was assessed in terms of the lateral positioning, steering stability and number of lane departures. In the no-roll condition, the motorcyclists tracked a steering point on the road ahead, which was compatible with the hypothesis of “steer where you look” behavior. In the roll condition, our results revealed that the horizontal distribution of gaze points relative to the tangent point was preserved. However, significantly more fixations were made further ahead of the tangent point in the vertical direction. This modification of visual behavior was coupled with a degradation in steering stability and an offset in lateral positioning, which sometimes led to lane departures. These results are discussed with regard to models of visual control of steering for bend negotiation.     

Political Expectations and Cultural Perceptions in the Arab-Israeli Peace Negotiations

In the various Arab-Israeli peace negotiations that have taken place since the late 1970s, each party entered the process, and continues to function within it, from the vantage point of different political expectations and cultural perceptions. These differences derive from the political features and social structures of the Arab parties and the Israeli side, which range from hierarchical to networked. Israel leans toward hierarchical order, whereas the Arab parties are more networked; these differences in the social and political environments influence the negotiating culture of each party. Hierarchical states develop goal-oriented negotiating cultures, whereas networked states have process-oriented negotiating cultures. The expectations that each side has of the other side to fulfill its part of the bargain are different as well; in hierarchical states such expectations are based on contracts, whereas in networked states such expectations are based on trust. Because it is unlikely that different cultural perceptions and the gap between the parties can be significantly bridged, it may be possible to cope with mutual problems if all parties were willing to accept a reality of perceptional pluralism (i.e., negotiating asymmetric arrangements, rather then each party insisting on mutual accommodation based on its own perspective).     

Effects of a Cognitive-Behavioral Self-Help Program on Depressed Mood for People with Peripheral Arterial Disease

The aim of the present study was to examine whether a new low-cost psychological self-help intervention program with minimal coaching could be effective in improving depressed mood in people with peripheral arterial disease (PAD). Thirteen persons with PAD and depressive symptoms participated in the self-help program, grounded in cognitive-behavioral therapy. They completed pre-test, post-test and follow-up questionnaires, including the PHQ-9, to measure symptoms of depression. To evaluate changes in depression scores from pre- to post-test to follow-up measurement, non-parametric repeated measures Wilcoxon signed rank tests were performed. The results showed that participants’ depression scores significantly improved from pre-test to post-test and that there was no relapse from post-test to follow-up. The cognitive-behavioral self-help intervention could be an effective tool in people with PAD, to reduce symptoms of depression.     

Bargaining Behavior in a Transfer Pricing Experiment

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of market threat capacity, external incentives, and time horizons on bargaining behavior in a transfer price simulation. Each subject played the role of a divisional manager. Market threat capacity was the option held by one negotiator to sell or buy his or her product in an external market. Incentives were based either entirely on a division′s profit or on both the divisional profits and the firmwide profits. Time horizon was manipulated at two levels—a single round of bargaining or a multiple round setting, the length of which was not specified to the subjects. Uncertainty regarding threat capacity reduced the frequency of cooperative bargaining. Contrary to expectations, subjects paid according to divisional profits cooperated more frequently than subjects paid on a joint basis of division and firm profits. Subjects did not become more cooperative over three rounds of negotiating, but the rate of cooperative behavior was affected by whether subjects expected to negotiate multiple or single rounds with the same person. The results indicate the importance of a multiple negotiation time horizon, threat capacity, and incentives on negotiation behavior.     

Team negotiation: social, epistemic, economic, and psychological consequences of subgroup conflict

Large collectives (e.g., organizations, political parties, nations) are seldom unitary players. Rather, they consist of different subgroups that often have conflicting interests. Nonetheless, negotiation research consistently regards negotiating teams, who represent these collectives, as monolithic parties with uniform interests. This article integrates concepts from social psychology, management, political science, and behavioral game theory to explore the effects of subgroup conflict on team negotiation. Specifically, the present research introduced a conflict of interests within negotiating teams and investigated how this internal conflict affects the outcome of the negotiation between teams. An experiment with 80 four-person teams found that conflict between subgroups had a detrimental effect on the performance of negotiating teams. This research also employed a recent model of motivated information processing in groups to investigate possible processes underlying the effect of subgroup conflict on team negotiation.     

How the quality of third parties' settlement solutions is affected by the relationship between negotiators

Observers watched videotapes of people negotiating. In half of the videotapes, the negotiators had a negative relationship; in the other half, the negotiators had a positive relationship. Some observers believed that the relationship was a genuine reflection of how the parties felt about one another; others were told that the behavior of negotiators was strategic (i.e., used by parties to gain advantage). Following the tape, observers recommended a settlement. Observers' suggestions were most efficient when the negotiators' relationship was positive and genuine; observers proposed significantly worse solutions when negotiators' relationships were negative and genuine. The authors advise mediators to focus on the issues rather than the emotional tone and to avoid the correspondence bias when observing conflicts among parties with negative relationships.     

能以貌取人吗? 面孔宽高比研究述评

面孔宽高比是左右颧骨点之间的距离除以上面高所得到的比值,被认为是人类面孔性别二态特征之一。男性面孔宽高比被认为是男性睾酮水平的可信外显指标,与攻击行为、欺诈等不道德行为存在显著关联,并受到社会经济地位的调节;面孔宽高比与上进心、对内群体成员的牺牲精神等男性化积极社会行为亦存在显著关联。睾酮水平被认为是面孔宽高比和社会行为两者背后的共变因素,并引起激烈争论:面孔宽高比的性别差异在多个研究中未获支持,男性面孔宽高比与睾酮水平存在关联的直接证据亦有待进一步夯实。     

Comparison of the PAD and PANAS as models for describing emotions and for differentiating anxiety from depression

Positive (PA) and Negative (NA) Affect scales were analyzed using the Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance (PAD) Emotion Model. PA was weighted by high arousal, pleasure, and dominance (listed in order of beta weights), thus approximating exuberance in PAD space. NA and markers of somatic anxiety were weighted by displeasure, high arousal, and submissiveness, approximating anxiety in PAD space. PA (or exuberance) represented only one of four basic variants of positive affect (exuberant, relaxed, dependent, docile) and NA (or anxiety) represented only one of four basic categories of negative affect (hostile, anxious, disdainful, bored). Thus, PA and NA lacked validity as general and balanced measures of positive and negative affect, respectively. Indeed, the counterintuitive mutual independence of PA and NA was possible only because PA (and NA) dealt narrowly with selective aspects of positive (negative) affect. The PAD alternative to the tripartite model showed anxiety and depression shared unpleasant and submissive temperament characteristics but differed because anxiety involved more arousability than depression.