Work-related Stress,Self-efficacy,and Well-being of Female Clerical Workers

This study examines individual differences (self-efficacy, marital status) and environmental factors (work stressors, personal and work supports) as predictors of two measures of well-being (trait anxiety and work performance). The data were collected from 56 female clerical workers employed by a large university. Multiple regression analyses showed that individual differences and environmental factors were significant predictors of well-being. For the criterion variable trait anxiety, self-efficacy and perceptions of work stress significantly contributed to the explained variance. However, the relationship between work stress and trait anxiety was greater for single than for married women. Self-efficacy and perceptions of work stress also predicted work performance impairment; that is, women with diminished selfefficacy and high work stress tended to report greater impairment of work performance. These results are discussed in relation to an individual counseling approach to the study and remediation of work-related stress for female clerical workers.     

The effects of sex and marital/parental status on performance evaluations and attributions

One hundred sixty female and 160 male undergraduates provided performance evaluations and attributions for a poor-performing stimulus employee depicted as male or female, and as either single or married with three preschool-aged children. No significant differences were detected for ratings given by male and female evaluators. The results did however, reveal a significant interaction of employee sex by marital/parental status conveying that of the four employee groups, married mothers were evaluated the most favorably, while single females were the least favorably evaluated. The differential performance evaluations were interpreted by attributional responses indicating that raters perceived external, uncontrollable factors as causes of the married mother's poor performance, while internal, controllable factors were seen as primary reasons for the poor performance of the other employees, particularly the single female's. Implications of the findings were presented.Portions of this paper were presented at the 43rd annual meeting of the Academy of Management, Dallas, Texas, August 1983.     

Marital Estrangement,Positive Feelings Toward Partners,and Locus of Control: Female Counselors Married to Alcohol‐Abusing and Non‐Alcohol‐Abusing Spouses

Marital estrangement, positive feelings toward spouses, and locus of control among a national sample of 323 female counselors who were either married or formerly married to alcohol‐abusing or to non‐alcohol‐abusing male partners were examined. Statistically significant differences between groups were found.     

高职院校教师职业压力的初步研究

本研究采用自编压力问卷和SCL-90问卷对397名高职院校教师进行测验,发现高职院校男女教师在总体职业压力方面并无显著差异,中青年组教师压力最大,各项压力因子与心理健康状况存在显著相关。根据调查结果,本文探讨了高职院校教师压力的原因与对策。     

Evaluating Competence: Effects of Sex, Marital Status, and Parental Status

Three hundred sixty eight female and male college students read a completed job application and an article written by the applicant. Both the job and the article were in non-sex-typed fields. The applicant was described as either female or male, single or married, and having one or no children. Subjects answered eight evaluative questions concerning the competence of the applicant and the merits of the article. Females were devalued by both male and female subjects, but particularly by males. Applicants of both sexes who were married and childless were evaluated more favorably than applicants who were single and had a child.     

Depression,anxiety and social support in rheumatoid arthritic women without and with a spouse

Abstract

A comparison was made of income and physical, social and psychological aspects of health between 22 female patients who had never married, 127 patients living with a spouse and 53 patients who were widowed or divorced. No significant differences were found between never married patients and patients living with a spouse. The widowed or divorced patients however had a lower income, reported less potential support, more depression and anxiety than the patients who were never married and those living with a spouse. The relationship of social support to depression and anxiety was investigated in spouseless patients (n=75) and in those living with a spouse (n=127). In both groups of patients, less potential support was found to be related to more anxiety. In addition, pain was found to contribute significantly to depression and to anxiety only in the patients living with a spouse. With regard to the latter, it is suggested that the debilitating influence of pain on the relationship with the partner might have been the mediating factor.     

Sex,race, and experiences of aggression

Most previous research on sex differences in experienced aggression has confounded the sex of the aggressor and of the target by considering married or dating couples. In the present study, black and white male and female college students were asked about specific acts of aggression which they had received from or directed toward a male or female. As predicted, males were likely to have both received and exhibited more forms of aggressive behavior, although females were somewhat more likely to have been honked at, to have been forced by a male to have sex, and to have slapped someone. Few racial differences were found, but it appeared that blacks might have been relatively more likely to exhibit physical aggression and whites to exhibit nonphysical aggression. Some differences were found in specific behaviors directed toward and received from males and females, but in general subjects said that they received more aggressive behaviors than they directed toward others. © 1992 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Division I men and women athletes do not differ on perceptions of worth

Historically, especially prior to the increased interest in women's athletics with the passage of Title IX in 1972, there have been negative perceptions of women as athletes. If these social perceptions still hold in part today, as is indirectly suggested by unequal press coverage and less basic support for women athletes, one might predict that collegiate female athletes would rate themselves lower on self-esteem and worth than collegiate male athletes. 176 Division I male (n = 90) and female (n = 86) athletes rated their perceptions of self on the Worth Index which measures basic human worth, personal security, performance, and physical self; these are divided into intrinsic (unconditional worth) measures and behavior or performance (conditional worth) measures. There were no significant sex differences in the ratings of any aspect of perceived worth, in contrast to prior results among non-athletes. In spite of less support given to women athletes, perhaps the long-term high-intensity competition that is required to reach Division I status tends to eliminate sex differences in self-worth.     

Healthy Schools-Healthy Kids: a controlled evaluation of a comprehensive universal eating disorder prevention program

This study was a controlled evaluation of a comprehensive school-based universal prevention program involving male and female students, parents, teachers, school administrators and local public health professionals. A total of 982 male and female Grades 6 and 7 middle school students (and 91 teachers/school administrators) completed self-report surveys at baseline on measures of body satisfaction, internalization of media ideals, size acceptance, disordered eating, weight-based teasing, weight loss and muscle-gaining behaviours, and perceptions of school climate (teachers only). Eighty-four percent of the students repeated the surveys immediately following the 8-month school-wide intervention and 71% again 6 months later. Repeated measures ANCOVAs revealed that participation in the Healthy Schools-Healthy Kids (HS-HK) program had a positive influence by reducing the internalization of media ideals among male and female students and by reducing disordered eating among female students. The program was also associated with reductions in weight-loss behaviours among the students, although this effect was lost by the 6-month follow-up. When the intervention students were sub-divided into low versus high-risk groups, the high-risk group appeared to benefit most from the intervention with significant reductions in internalization of media ideals, greater body satisfaction, and reduced disordered eating over time. There were no intervention effects for teachers. Challenges of engaging teachers in prevention are discussed.     

Attitudes towards single women

Empirical studies of attitudes towards, and the sociopsychological characteristics of single women have been neglected by social scientists. As a minority group, subject to normative judgements of their sex-role behavior, single women are vulnerable to prejudicial evaluations by married people of both sexes. The present study investigated aspects of the social environment which have positive or negative consequences for single women. A survey was conducted of N=48 male and female married subjects in an Australian city. Major findings were that (a) married people have little or no contact with single women; (b) males tend to be more negative in their evaluations of single women than females; and (c) most females can allow for the possibility of a major sex role other than that involving marriage.     

Marital Status and Sex: Impact on Career Self-Efficacy

Bandura's (1977, 1986) self-efficacy theory served as the theoretical framework for examining the preferences of 214 individuals for either traditionally male or traditionally female occupations. An interaction between sex and marital status was found with regard to efficacy for traditionally female occupations. Married women scored higher than did married men, and unmarried women scored higher than did unmarried men for the traditionally female occupations. No difference between married and unmarried men or between married and unmarried women was indicated for the traditionally female occupations. A significannt main effect of sex, with men scoring higher than women, was found for both the traditionally male and traditionallyfemale occupations. Implications for further research as well as for career counseling and development are discussed.     

Alcohol consumption, alcohol abuse, personality and female perpetrated spouse abuse

As part of the Winnipeg Health and Drinking Survey, this study examined the problem of female perpetrated spouse abuse and its relationship to alcohol consumption and personality. Subjects were drawn from a random sample of Winnipeg residents (N = 1257) between the ages of 18 and 65 years. For this study, data from the subsample of female subjects who were married or cohabiting (N = 452) were analyzed. Results show that more than 39% of female subjects participated in some form of spouse abuse with their male partners. Being young and having high scores on Eysenck's psychoticism scale, the Neuroticism Index and the MacAndrew Scale were found to be significant risk factors in the occurence of partner abuse among females. Also, the interaction between alcohol consumption and Eysenck's psychoticism scale was found to be a weak but significant predictor for this form of violence.     

Gender Differences in Transformational Leadership: An Examination of Superior,Leader, and Subordinate Perspectives

This study examined gender differences intransformational leadership from multiple perspectives.The sample was employees of a large international bank inAustralia. Ratings were obtained from branch managers' (n = 120 female and n = 184 male), theirsuperiors (n = 32) and subordinates (n = 588). Thefindings showed that superiors evaluated female managersas more transformational than male managers. Consistent with the superior observations, at the globallevel, female managers rated themselves as moretransformational than males, however, at the morespecific, behavioral level of analysis, significantgender differences were noted only for those subscaleswhich are more interpersonally-oriented. Subordinatesevaluated their female and male leadersequally.     

Verbal aggressiveness and state anxiety of volleyball players and coaches

The purpose of the present study was to examine the relation of verbal aggressiveness and state anxiety (somatic, cognitive, and self-confidence) in sports settings based on the ratings by volleyball coaches and their athletes. The sample consisted of volleyball athletes (n=208; 98 men and 110 women) and their coaches (n=20; 16 men and 4 women). Analysis showed that male volleyball players rated somatic anxiety higher and were more affected by the verbal aggressiveness of their coaches than female volleyball players. No mean differences were significant for male and female coaches on somatic or cognitive anxiety, self-confidence, or verbal aggressiveness. Also, correlation between subscale scores for male and female volleyball players and coaches was found. The correlations of verbal aggressiveness with self-confidence and anxiety were positive for these athletes, leading them to better behavior. This relationship needs further examination in sport settings.     

The effects of neonatal gonadectomy and prenatal stress on cortical thickness and asymmetry in rats

In Study I measures of cortical thickness were taken in 90-day-old male and female Sprague-Dawley, Wistar, and Long-Evans rats that were born to pregnant females shipped to the laboratory in late pregnancy and that were either gonadectomized at birth or left intact. No evidence for hemispheric differences in cortical thickness was found in any of the groups. Gonadectomy resulted in increased cortical thickness in male Sprague-Dawley and Wistar rats and in small increases in thickness of the left hemisphere in Long-Evans rats, especially males. No effects of gonadectomy were found in females of any strain. The lack of the expected right-over-left difference in cortical thickness in intact males may have been due to prenatal stress caused by housing, handling, and shipping. In Study 2 measures of cortical thickness were taken in 90-day-old male and female Sprague-Dawley rats that were bred in our laboratory, but otherwise similarly treated at birth. In this second study, the expected right-over-left hemispheric difference in cortical thickness was found in intact male rats; none was found in gonadectomized males or in either of the female groups. The lack of asymmetry in gonadectomized males appeared to be due to an increase in thickness in the left hemisphere. Taken together these studies provide support for the idea that hormones of testicular origin suppress cortical enlargement in the perinatal period, particularly in the left hemisphere.     

Strain and gender specific effects in the forced swim test: effects of previous stress exposure

The chronic mild stress (CMS) procedure was developed in rodents to target anhedonia, the core symptom of depressive melancholia. Stress exposure has been shown to induce a variety of physiological, biochemical and behavioral alterations associated with depression, although its anhedonic consequences as indexed by either sucrose intake and preference or thresholds for brain stimulation reward are less reliably observed. In the present study, we assessed the effects of six weeks of CMS on the latter measure in two strains of male and female rats subsequently challenged with an acute psychophysical stressor, forced swimming; their behavior in the swimming cylinder was evaluated on two consecutive days. While brain stimulation reward thresholds and response rates were unchanged by CMS exposure, significant differences in forced swim behaviors were observed between male control and CMS groups. In particular, male Long Evans rats with a history of CMS showed the largest decrease in the duration of active behaviors on the second test day, a pattern less evident in the Sprague-Dawley strain of rats, or in any of the female groups. The results suggest that the effects of depressogenic manipulations are strain and gender dependent, with male Long Evans rats most susceptible, as demonstrated by the selective reduction of struggling behaviors. Inclusion of multiple measures, including the forced swim test, would provide a better understanding of the psychopathological profile engendered by chronic exposure to mild stressors and its genetic specificity.     

A comparison of observed and reported adult-infant interactions: Effects of perceived sex

Interactions of 16 adults (eight married couples whose youngest child was less than 2 1/2 years old) with a single actor infant, dressed as either a male or a female, were recorded and analyzed in four categories: direction of gaze, facial expression, physical contact with the infant, and toy used. After the interaction period, a 45-minute interview on child rearing was conducted with each member of the couple. Observed interactions were then compared with interview data. The results support previous studies which show that both male and female parents behave differently toward unfamiliar infants on the basis of perceived sex. However, parents, especially mothers, appeared unaware of their differential treatment of male and female infants. These results suggest subtle sex-typing of infants by adults.     

Gender differences in psychological morbidity,burnout, job stress and job satisfaction among Chinese neurologists: a national cross-sectional study

Women are an important part of the medical workforce, yet little is known about gender differences in psychological morbidity, burnout, job stress and job satisfaction among neurologists. This study assessed gender differences in a large national sample of Chinese neurologists. Multivariate analyses were performed to examine associations. A total of 5558 neurologists were included in the analysis. Compared with their male counterparts, female neurologists were generally younger; were less likely to be married or to have children; had higher levels of education; were in practice for a shorter period of time; were less likely to hold senior roles; and had lower incomes. Male and female neurologists worked similar hours and spent a similar number of nights on call. No gender differences were found in psychological morbidity, burnout, and high levels of job stress for female and male, respectively. Women had higher emotional exhaustion scores, while men were more likely to have low levels of job satisfaction. The multivariate analysis showed that factors independently associated with psychological morbidity, burnout, high levels of job stress and low levels of job satisfaction were generally similar for women and men. These findings increase our understanding of gender differences in psychological morbidity, burnout, job stress, and job satisfaction among neurologists. As more women join the medical profession, these differences may be useful in designing medical training and practice.     

Remuneration differences in the emerging economies of China and India

Emerging economies by definition tend to be less dependent on expatriate skills and labour than lower-income countries, yet remuneration (pay plus benefits) differences between expatriate and local workers persist in them to some degree. According to relative deprivation theory, economic development paradoxically elevates the salience of relatively small gaps in remuneration. We therefore expected workers to report injustice and demotivation regarding relative remuneration, despite the closing of remuneration gaps between expatriate and local workers due to the economic development of recent years. To explore that possibility, 482 skilled professionals from a variety of sectors and organizations in two emerging economies, India (n = 233, response rate = 54%) and China (n = 249, response rate = 58%), participated in the research. International salaries were greater than local salaries by a factor of 2.73:1 in India and 1.90:1 in China; these mean ratios bordered on intolerable in the India sample and were largely tolerable among the sample from China. In both countries, differently remunerated workers differed in their justice cognitions and their demotivation, with lowered motivation and fewer justice cognitions in the locally salaried, local workers. These differences were however more statistically significant between people working in India than in China. Insofar as the motivational and justice gaps persisted, the findings support relative deprivation theory. Insofar as the same gaps appear to be sharper in the country with the higher-not lower-mean remuneration differential, they do not. An in-country workshop with local experts who interpreted the findings (in India), and content analysis of the participants' recommendations (in China) jointly recommended linking remuneration to (i) workplace performance instead of (ii) economy-of-origin, to help promote (iii) fairness.