Controlled Substance‐related Beliefs and Use: Relationships to Undergraduates' Creative Personality Traits

The relationship between creativity and various mind‐altering substances — especially alcohol — has been a popular topic among creativity researchers and the public at large. Yet experimental studies have found little evidence that alcohol use has a causal influence on creativity, with most studies of creative production showing negative or neutral effects. However, the impact of high levels of creativity on future alcohol use (i.e., the reciprocal relationship) has been rarely studied. The present study examined the relationship between creative personality characteristics, use of alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana, and alcohol‐related beliefs among 431 undergraduates. Results of correlational and t‐test analyses suggest that creative personality is not significantly correlated with use of these three controlled substances, and that the relationships between personality scores and self‐reported beliefs about alcohol are generally weak, with notable exceptions. The paper concludes with specific recommendations regarding research on the relationship between creativity and the use of controlled‐substances.     

Effects of Creative and Non-Creative Work on the Tendency To Drink Alcohol During the Restitution Phase of the Creative Process

An experimental study explored how type of task (hard or light creative task or hard non-creative task) would affect the propensity to drink either alcoholic or nonalcoholic beverages. Subjects worked for forty minutes and a following taste test indicated that subjects working on the hard creative task drank more totally and more of both the alcohol and the placebo drinks than subjects working on the hard non-creative task. Also subjects with light creative work drank more alcohol than did the control subjects. The results were discussed in terms of a need to calm down during a phase of restitution after creative work. The results are in keeping with how creative artists seem to use alcohol.     

Creativity and anxiety: An experimental study

Tested a group of 31 psychiatric patients with anxiety as one of their main symptoms using a percept-genetic (PG) test measuring creativity or willingness to reconstruct subjective interpretations of the stimulus. A control group of 43 from an earlier study was also included. For half of the subjects a threatening motif was presented subliminally during part of the PG series. By means of an interview, an estimation was made of the subjects' urge to create and of the severity of their anxiety. The Meta-Contrast Technique (MCT) was used to describe defenses in the clinical group. Taking into account their urge to be creative, the clinical subjects received relatively few positive scores on the PG test. The subliminal addition to the anxiety level did not facilitate creative functioning as was the case with the normal subjects. The main obstacles to creative functioning seemed to be grave anxiety and rigid defense mechanisms or, to generalize, low tolorance of the anxiety necessarily associated with creative work.     

Alcohol and creative writing.

A repeated-measures design was used to test for the effects of alcohol on creative writing as measured by use of novel figurative language. 11 male social drinkers participated in a creative writing task under two conditions, alcohol (high dose: 1.1 ml. ethanol/kilogram body weight) and placebo. In the alcohol condition, within-subject comparisons indicated significantly greater quantity of creative writing while intoxicated. These results were interpreted as supporting the belief that alcohol can reduce "writer's block," at least amongst nonalcoholic subjects.     

Lateralization of defence mechanisms related to creative functioning

Eighty-four undergraduate students were randomly divided into left and right visual half-field groups. They were tested in either visual half-field with a percept-genetic test of anxiety and defense mechanisms (the MCT). The subjects also took a test of creative functioning (the CFT) and degree of lateralization in the MCT was related to level of creativity in the CFT. Subjects low in creativity were significantly lateralized on measures typical for the right visual half-field group (isolation and repression) and tended to differ on a left visual half-field measure (regressive strategies). For high creative subjects no differences were found between the visual half-field groups. Also, high creative persons more often responded with non-hemisphere-specific defenses than low creative ones. The results were interpreted as due to differing levels of transmission of information between the two hemispheres of the brain.     

Creativity on tap? Effects of alcohol intoxication on creative cognition

Anecdotal reports link alcohol intoxication to creativity, while cognitive research highlights the crucial role of cognitive control for creative thought. This study examined the effects of mild alcohol intoxication on creative cognition in a placebo-controlled design. Participants completed executive and creative cognition tasks before and after consuming either alcoholic beer (BAC of 0.03) or non-alcoholic beer (placebo). Alcohol impaired executive control, but improved performance in the Remote Associates Test, and did not affect divergent thinking ability. The findings indicate that certain aspects of creative cognition benefit from mild attenuations of cognitive control, and contribute to the growing evidence that higher cognitive control is not always associated with better cognitive performance.     

Attitudes toward suicide among highly creative college students

Two groups of college students (n = 58 each) were identified through a combination of teacher nominations and creativity test scores, were labeled as creative or control, and matched on gender, age, college major, and vocabulary level. Their attitudes towards suicide were assessed using the Suicide Opinion Questionnaire (SOQ). Seven of the eight SOQ scales statistically differentiated the two groups, with creative subjects showing greater agreement of endorsement on the Mental Illness, Right to Die, Normality, and Aggression scales, and greater disagreement on the Cry for Help, Religion, and Moral Evil scales. The results suggest considerable attitudinal differences towards suicide between highly creative subjects and their control peers, with creative students perceiving suicide in more liberal and less judgmental terms.     

Effects of Alcohol on Picture Drawing During the Verification Phase of the Creative Process

This study tested effects of acute alcohol intoxication on elaboration and revision in the verification phase of Wallas' (1926/1970) four stage model of creativity. Forty-two male and female participants were randomly assigned to three groups of equal size--a control group, a placebo group, and an alcohol group. The alcohol dose was I ml 100% alcohol/kg body weight. Participants were instructed to read a poem and to draw a picture using the poem. These pictures were judged by 2 separate panels of judges. Panel A was comprised of 3 professional artists. Panel B was comprised of 3 college art instructors. No group differences were apparent in ratings given by Panel A, but Panel B gave the work of the alcohol group low handicraft ratings. Results were interpreted as an indication that a moderate dose of alcohol inhibits certain relevant abilities during the verification phase of the creative process.     

Effects of Alcohol On Scientific Thought During the Incubation Phase of The Creative Process

The present study examined whether or not acute alcohol intoxication inhibits or facilitates the incubation phase of Wallas' (1926/1970) four-stage model of creativity. Sixty male and female participants were randomly assigned to three groups of equal size: a Control group, a Placebo group and an Alcohol group (alcohol dose: 1.0 ml of 100% alcohol/kg body weight, delivered on two occasions). It was shown that the Alcohol group produced significantly more incubations and significantly higher levels of originality. No differences between groups regarding the scientific value of the products were obtained. Possible consequences of alcohol intoxication for creative production are discussed and a theoretical framework is introduced.     

Effects of Alcohol on Persistent Effort and Deductive Thinking During the Preparation Phase of the Creative Process

According to the four stage model of creativity (Wallas, 1926/1970) the first stage is a phase of preparation, which requires a persistent intellectual effort over time and ability to reason deductively. The present study explored whether alcohol intoxication would impair these two abilities. 42 men and women were randomly assigned to either an Alcohol, a Placebo, or a Control group. After drinking subjects completed two tests measuring persistent effort and deductive reasoning. Results indicated that the Alcohol and Placebo groups were impaired with respect to persistent effort and that the Alcohol group also was impaired with respect to deductive reasoning. Consequences for the creative production under alcohol intoxication were discussed.     

超常与常态儿童的兴趣、动机与创造性思维的比较研究

在超常儿童研究领域存在着许多争议的问题,超常儿童的智力与创造力的关系问题就是其中的一个。为了更好地解释超常儿童的创造力与智力的本质关系,我们曾提出了“创造性系统模型”。本研究的主要目的是进一步证实模型提出的假设。本研究以超常和常态儿童为被试对儿童的兴趣、动机与创造性思维的关系作了进一步的考察。结果发现：（１）超常儿童的图形、数字和实用创造性思维的流畅性和独创性成绩都明显高于常态儿童;（２）超常和常态儿童的创造性思维与兴趣、动机之间存在显著的相关;（３）兴趣和动机得分较高的被拭的创造性思维得分显著高于兴趣和动机得分较低的被试;（４）超常儿童中有相当部分处于低兴趣和低动机水平,而常态儿童中却有相当部分处于高兴趣和高动机水平。因此,本研究从一个侧面进一步支持了系统模型中提出的有关儿童创造性的假设     

Creativity Under Concurrent and Sequential Task Conditions

Two experiments were conducted to investigate creativity for realistic divergent thinking problems, under concurrent and sequential task conditions (CTC and STC, respectively). Creativity was judged on divergence, novelty, appropriateness, and fluency of solutions. Results of Experiment I revealed that creativity was significantly higher under CTC than under STC. Embedded Figures Test was employed to rule out a possible alternative explanation that better performance under CTC is due to difference in creative potential between individuals participating under the two task conditions. Experiment II employed a control group to investigate whether difference in creative performance under the two conditions is due to a facilitation effect or a distraction effect, as compared to the control condition. Results showed a significant distraction effect under STC, and indicated, though not significant, a facilitation effect under CTC. Findings are understood in light of the associative theories of creativity, which highlight the role of attentional mechanisms in the creative process. Some indexes for measuring creative performance on realistic divergent thinking tasks are validated against conventional measures.     

Dissociative Experiences and Creativity in Fine Arts Students

Studies on creative personality have revealed that the relationship between personality and creativity remains unclear, and various types of creative thinking have been have been associated with various personality traits. To assess the influence of dissociative experiences on creativity in the context of fine arts education, in which the creative process plays a key role, a sample of fine arts students received a test of creative potential and the dissociative experiences test. The results revealed significant differences in creativity (creative imagination and creative experiences) between students scoring high or low in the number of dissociative experiences. High dissociative experiences scores were associated to high scores in creative imagination and creative experiences, and low scores in dissociative experiences were inversely related to creative imagination and creative experiences. Further studies are required to corroborate these findings.     

儿童实用创造力发展及其与家庭环境的关系

以中小学生（9岁至16岁）为研究对象,采用实用创造性测验任务,探查了儿童创造力的发展以及家庭环境因素对于创造力的影响,并得到如下的结论：（1）儿童的创造力随年龄发展逐渐提高,但创造力新颖性、流畅性和变通性三个维度的发展并不均衡,流畅性和变通性在9至11岁期间比其他年龄阶段发展得更快;（2）家庭环境对于儿童的创造力有直接影响也有间接影响,其中间接影响是通过影响创造性态度而得以实现的。     

Meta‐Analyses of the Relationship of Creative Achievement to Both IQ and Divergent Thinking Test Scores

There is disagreement among researchers about whether IQ tests or divergent thinking (DT) tests are better predictors of creative achievement. Resolving this dispute is complicated by the fact that some research has shown a relationship between IQ and DT test scores (e.g., Runco & Albert, 1986; Wallach, 1970). The present study conducted meta‐analyses of the relationships between creative achievement and both IQ and DT test scores. The analyses included 17 studies (with 5,544 participants) that established the correlation coefficients between IQ and creative achievement and 27 studies (with 47,197 participants) that established the correlation coefficients between DT test scores and creative achievement. Marginal, but statistically significant, Fisher's Z‐transformed correlation coefficients were revealed. The analysis found a significantly higher relationship between DT test scores and creative achievement (r = .216) than between IQ test scores and creative achievement (r = .167). The differences in the correlation coefficients were explained by differences in DT tests, creative achievement types, predicted time periods, and creativity subscales. The significant independent moderator effect for different DT tests indicates that the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) predict creative achievement better than any other DT test included in this study. Among the creative achievement types, music is predicted the best by IQ and all others are predicted best by DT tests. Among the time periods evaluated, the relationship between DT test scores and creative achievement had the highest correlation at the period of 11–15 years.     

Generality of creativity across performance domains

The existence of general creative‐thinking skills was investigated. In the first study, 50 eighth‐grade students wrote poems, stories, mathematical equations, and mathematical word problems, all of which were rated for creativity by experts. When the effects of IQ reading achievement, and math achievement were controlled through multiple regression analyses, creativity scores on the four tasks were not correlated. This suggests that general creative‐thinking skills did not contribute to creative performance in these different tasks. Subjects also responded to a brief verbal fluency test. Scores on this test correlated significantly with story‐writing creativity (r = .34) but not with the other three tasks. Three follow‐up studies were conducted with second‐, fourth‐, and fifth‐grade students, and adults. These studies also produced no significant correlations among creativity ratings of various products.     

Creativity in old age

Sixty elderly subjects (M = 72 years) were tested and interviewed to find out how they experience and come to terms with the advent of illness, aging, and death. The choice of test instruments was steered by the necessity to learn how our subjects handled their anxiety (the Meta‐Contrast Technique [MCT]); to operationally define the concept of self‐image (the Identification Test [IT]); and to illuminate the findings from the perspective of creativity (the Creative Functioning Test [CFT]). The results revealed creativity to be a key factor in aging. The attitude of creative individuals towards aging was less negative and their attitude to illness less defensive. On the whole, their self‐projections were not only more flexible but also more emotional. However, creativity is not uninfluenced by context, particularly when it is of medium strength. The results also revealed that the subliminal messages used in the IT to manipulate the projected self‐image were effective.     

Women''s yielding to social group pressure as a function of alcohol and type of pressure

Thirty-six women participated in an experiment exploring whether alcohol intoxication facilitates yielding to social persuasive information. Subjects were randomly assigned to either an Alcohol, a Placebo, or a Control Group. The alcohol dose was 1.0 ml of 100% alcohol/kg body weight. Subjects first estimated the length of a line and were then given faked feedback from either a male or a female peer reference group. This procedure was repeated 60 times. Analyses indicated that the Placebo group yielded more often than the Alcohol group irrespective of type of feedback. A measure of locus of control indicated no significant mean differences as a function of alcohol group but correlations between externality and yielding were strong for placebo subjects, that is, externally oriented placebo subjects yielded more than internally oriented placebo subjects. This was discussed in terms of feelings uneasiness caused by the discrepancy between feelings of intoxication and information about drink content.     

Sex differences in instructions to "be creative" on divergent and nondivergent test scores

Harrington (1975) found that both the magnitude and meaning of male subject scores on the Alternate Uses Test were altered by explicit instructions to “be creative,” and argued for the necessity of such instructions, plus qualitative scoring criteria, in the employment of tests of creativity. The present study elaborated upon this study by including female subjects, more than one test of divergent thinking and a test of nondivergent thinking. Instructions to be creative increased the proportion of creative responses output for both males and females, and sharpened correlations with Adjective Check List personality scales. Instructions did not alter performance on the nondivergent test. These results were interpreted to mean the instructions elicited strategies particularly relevant to divergent thinking and ruled out nonspecific effects such as those due to motivation. A reliable sex-difference in ideational fluency was also observed: instructions to be creative facilitated the total number of responses output for the male subjects. This supports a hypothesis that the instructions disambiguate I he test situation differently for men and women, suggesting the need to isolate individual conceptions of creativity in order to maximize test performance.     

小而灵通，老而顽固？年龄信息对创造性观念评价的影响及其机制

创作者的年龄作为重要的社会线索信息,可能会影响大众对其观点的创造性评价。本研究以物品非常规用途想法作为评价材料,考察了4类年龄信息对创造性观念评价的影响,以及相关刻板印象在其中的作用。结果发现,10岁左右年龄信息会提升被试的新颖性和适用性评分;30岁左右的信息提升了新颖性评分,但刻板印象强弱对评分变化不具有预测作用。这表明,对于领域一般性产品,有关创作者的刻板印象不易被激活并应用于创造性评价。