Modifications to basic functional analysis procedures in school settings: a selective review

This review describes applied behavioral research involving functional analyses conducted in public school settings. Functional analyses in public school settings often require added conditions. The modified conditions described herein include changes to experimental designs, antecedent changes that include task variation, tasks included, idiosyncratic variables, physiological conditions, and modified escape conditions. Finally, consequent modifications cover peer attention, tangibles, varied attention, and altered escape. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Do instructional warnings reduce false recognition?

After previously encoding lists of related words (e.g. bed, rest, awake, etc.) associated with one critical word (e.g. sleep), participants frequently falsely recognize critical words as having been previously presented. Past research indicates that warning participants of this memory illusion can reduce false recognition of critical words. However, the memory processes responsible for this reduction are not known. We investigated whether the increase in critical‐word memory performance reflects changes that are specific to the processing of critical words, or alternatively, changes that are applied generally to processing in all conditions. Different participants were warned (in two different ways) or not warned before encoding, and recognition sensitivity for critical words, related words and unrelated words was tested. The warnings increased memory performance equally across all conditions, not just for critical words. These results help to more effectively conceptualize false recognition and reductions in false recognition in this paradigm. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Afterword

The author commends this collection of papers on applied cognitive psychology and the Guest Editor's distinction between basic, ecologically valid and applied research. The relationship of these three varieties of research is discussed in relation to the findings reported by the various contributors to this Special Issue of Applied Cognitive Psychology.     

Ethical Principles and Standards: A Racial-Ethnic Minority Research Perspective

This article directs attention to philosophical changes that if implemented would make Ethical Principles and Standards more responsive and relevant to the pragmatic research needs of minorities.     

Blessed be the Children: A Case–Control Study of Sexual Abusers in the Catholic Church

Individuals working in churches and other youth-serving institutions have a unique level of access to children, yet the problem of sexual abuse in institutional settings has received scant research attention. To address this gap, we analyzed data from a large sample of clergy (N = 1,121) and applied a social–ecological model of offending to identify risk factors for sexual abuse perpetration. Using a case–control study design that compared clergy sexual abusers with three control groups of clergy, this study focuses specifically on individual-, relationship-, and community-level factors associated with a higher risk of abuse in professional populations. Findings revealed that clergy sexual abusers tended to have more truncated pre-seminary dating histories, and that their dating and sexual partners were more likely to have been male than female. Self-reported sexual abuse history was associated with a greater likelihood of sexual abuse perpetration among clergy. Clergy abusers tended to be more involved with youth and adolescents in their ministries; however, they were observed to relate less well to youth and adolescents than their clergy counterparts. Given widespread changes in our cultural understanding of abuse as well as more specific changes in the organizational approach to seminary education, these differences underscore the role that youth-serving institutions and society can have in the primary prevention of child sexual abuse. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Behavioral Gerontology: State of the Science

Baer, Wolf and Risley's (1968) dimensions of applied behavior analysis are used as an organizing framework to review and discuss current research on the application of behavioral principles to the solution of social problems faced by older adults. Implications for future research are discussed.     

Flexible Approaches to Computing Mediated Effects in Generalized Linear Models: Generalized Estimating Equations and Bootstrapping

In behavioral research, interest is often in examining the degree to which the effect of an independent variable X on an outcome Y is mediated by an intermediary or mediator variable M. This article illustrates how generalized estimating equations (GEE) modeling can be used to estimate the indirect or mediated effect, defined as the amount by which the regression coefficient of X on Y changes after adjusting for M. Advantages of this method are: (a) it applies to the class of generalized linear models, including linear, logistic, and Poisson regression as special cases; (b) it allows multiple independent variables and mediators in the same model; and (c) asymptotically valid standard errors and confidence intervals are obtained using standard software. This methodology is compared with the bootstrap, another general methodology that can be applied to the same broad class of models, and is evaluated using simulation in both linear and logistic regression scenarios. The methods are utilized to examine the degree to which the effect of low birthweight status on internalizing symptoms at age 20 is mediated through IQ at age 8.     

Rates of responding measured by continuous recording in applied behavioral research

There is no published source that can inform behavioral measurement research about typical response rates measured by continuous recording in applied behavior analysis. The present study was designed to determine the distribution of data on rate of responding reported across a recent 10‐volume (1998–2007) sample of research articles from the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. Rate of responding was measured for 20 553 datapoints in 360 sets of data (one participant in one graph) presented in 60 research articles. The majority of datapoints showed response rates of less than 1.0 response per minute, with 28.3% at zero. The highest rate reported was 104.5 responses per minute. The maximum response rate in datasets was more than 1.0 response per minute in 96.7% of datasets, indicating that continuous recording has been employed in research in which a relatively high rate of responding was recorded at some time during the study. The data from this report will assist researchers to determine empirically the representativeness of response rates in studies of measurement in applied behavior analysis. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

From,into, and back: translations of the Sami words noaidi and noaidevuohta in context

This article discusses how the Sami word noaidi and the word for the noaidi’s trade (noaidevuohta) have been translated in missionary texts and academic research. It traces context-related translations of these Sami concepts: first by clergy into terms connoted to ‘witchcraft’ and ‘sorcery’, then by scholars into the technical terms ‘shaman’ and ‘shamanism’, and finally by contemporary scholars by translating them back into indigenous terms. The article is divided into three parts that explore changes in translations of noaidi and noaidevuohta from three slightly differing perspectives: the translations from Sami to other languages, the translations of the Bible into Sami languages, and the academic practice of translating technical terms back to Sami. These changes open a window into the research history of Sami religion and the power asymmetries between the Sami and majority cultures: through this window one sees that translations are situated, context-bound, and laden with implicit assumptions.     

Does g variance change in adulthood? Testing the age de-differentiation hypothesis across sex

In the last decade, changes in the structure of intelligence across the life-span has become a central topic in the research on human intelligence. One of the main hypotheses that has arisen to account for such changes has been the age de-differentiation hypothesis [Balinsky, Genetic Psychology Monographs 23 1941, 191]. It predicts an increase in the importance of g, and a decrease in the number and importance of the lower-order abilities from early maturity to senescence. Despite of the research effort to test this hypothesis, no study has ever been conducted controlling by sex. For that purpose, males and females of the Spanish standardisation sample of the WAIS-III were analysed separately. Results show that the importance of g does not change with age irrespective of sex. Thus, the age de-differentiation hypothesis is rejected for both males and females. The indifferentiation hypothesis is supported as a more appropriate view of the changes in the structure of intelligence across adulthood.     

Research Artifacts and the Social Psychology of Psychological Experiments

In psychological research with human subjects, experimenters need to anticipate potential artifacts that may be attributable to the social context of such research. Called research artifacts in this review, they are essentially uncontrolled, systematic errors (or biases) that threaten the degree of validity of statements made about whether changes in one variable result in changes in another variable. This discussion focuses on a proposed Markov‐like model emphasizing three mediating variables that operate in a theoretical chain of events. One variable refers to the likelihood of the subject's receptivity to task‐orienting cues (called demand characteristics), or incidental hints about the experimenter's expectations. A second variable refers to the likelihood of the subject's motivation (or willingness) to comply with those cues or hints. A third variable refers to the likelihood of the subject's capability of responding in accordance with the cues or hints. These three variables are discussed along with strategies that researchers can use to break the chain of events.     

Towards the DSM‐5 Criteria for Autism: Clinical,Cultural, and Research Implications

The new edition of the DSM is proposing significant changes to current diagnostic definitions of autism and related conditions. In this article, we will discuss the clinical, research, and cultural implications of these changes. We conclude that the new criteria appear to better reflect current understanding of the autism spectrum disorder than the current DSM‐IV criteria. As expected with any major change in classification systems, there are also significant risks, which will have to be carefully monitored and addressed by both policy makers and the scientific community to ensure that best clinical practice and research are facilitated and advanced.     

A task‐ and role‐based perspective on super‐recognizers: Commentary on ‘Super‐recognizers: From the lab to the world and back again’

This article provides a commentary on recent work by Ramon et al. (2019, British Journal of Psychology) on super‐recognizers. The commentary advocates a task‐ and role‐based approach to SR research and greater collaboration between researchers and the applied community.     

Authorship trends in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis: An update

The Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA) is considered the flagship journal for the discipline of applied behavior analysis. Thus, popular research topics and other publication trends within JABA reflect the current cultural and scientific contingencies governing the field of behavior analysis. Researchers have previously quantified a number of authorship trends in JABA (and other behavior-analytic journals) across a number of variables, such as gender identity and sex of author, country of origin, or seniority within the field (Dunlap et al., 1998) to examine demographic and organizational factors associated with successful publication in JABA. These analyses ought to be conducted continuously to monitor trends and detect any potential biases (e.g., sexism). Accordingly, the purpose of the present investigation was to replicate previous research in this area (e.g., Dymond et al., 2000) and provide an update of current publication trends within JABA. Implications for future research and publishing practices are discussed.     

Computer-Assisted Career Guidance and Single-Subject Research: A Scientist-Practitioner Approach to Accountability

In this article the author discusses how computer-assisted career counselors can become more accountable for their services by using intensive research designs. An overview of computer-assisted career guidance (CACG) is presented, and the relevance of the scientist-practitioner model is discussed. Applicable single-subject research, including simple and complex phase changes, alternating treatment designs, and replication are presented with examples for accountable CACG counseling. If your client has changed, how do you know it? —Jerry Schmidt To understand individuals, it is necessary to study individuals. —Leo Goldman     

RESEARCH SETTINGS IN INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: FACTS,FALLACIES, AND THE FUTURE1,2,3

Data were collected about research issues involving laboratory and field settings through a content analysis of the 1966, 1970, and 1974 volumes of the Journal of Applied Psychology, Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, and Personnel Psychology. Four general categories of data were collected: (a) affiliation of investigators, (b) topic areas investigated, (c) settings of the research, and (d) research strategies employed. Four common beliefs of either laboratory or field advocates were contradicted by the data. First, laboratory research was found fairly frequently in the industrial-organizational literature. Second, theory and hypothesis testing were not overemphasized. Third, laboratory research was as applied as field research. Lastly, studies published by researchers with nonacademic affiliations were as likely to have been conducted in laboratory settings as field settings. Recommendations were made to use the laboratory more frequently for theory and hypothesis based research and to use a variety of research strategies in both laboratory and field settings.     

Contraction in Interrogative Belief Revision

In the paper “On the role of the research agenda in epistemic change”, Olsson and Westlund have suggested that the notion of epistemic state employed in the standard framework of belief revision (Alchourrón et al. 1985; G?rdenfors 1988) should be extended to include a representation of the agent’s research agenda (Olsson and Westlund 2006). The resulting framework will here be referred to as interrogative belief revision. In this paper, I attempt to deal with the problem of how research agendas should change in contraction, a problem largely left open by Olsson and Westlund. Two desiderata of an appropriate solution are suggested: one is a principle of continuity, stating that changes in the research agenda should somehow reflect that certain long term research interests are kept fixed. The other desideratum, which is based on part of Olsson and Westlund’s motivation for adding research agendas to the epistemic states, is that we should be able to account for how contraction may serve to open up new, fruitful hypotheses for investigation. In order to achieve these desiderata, I base my solution on a revised version of Olsson and Westlund’s notion of epistemic state.     

An Exploration of Coaching Research in Journal of Applied Sport Psychology from 1989 to 2017

This article seeks to examine the treatment of coaching research within Journal of Applied Sport Psychology (JASP) and, specifically, to explore whether the Association for Applied Sport Psychology’s mission in recognizing the coach as a performing “other” is being adopted in the field. The study followed a 3-phase design. In Phase 1, an exhaustive search was conducted to identify all coach-related research published in JASP from 1989 to 2017. Phase 2 consisted of accessing the 101 identified articles from a total of 690 articles that had been published in JASP during the review period. In Phase 3, articles were categorized into the multidisciplinary sport and exercise psychology (M-SEP) and contemporary multidisciplinary sport and exercise psychology (C-SEP) periods, and analysis of the articles was completed. Main results indicated that articles that focused on coach perceptions about different topics related primarily to SEP decreased in focus from 40% in the M-SEP period to 23% in the C-SEP period. A prominent focus in both periods was the impact of coaches (often interpersonal behaviors) on their athletes’ performance (M-SEP?=?35%, C-SEP?=?46%). A coach performance focus was coded in only 10% of articles in both periods. Articles decreased in their explicit discussion of how research applied to consulting from 60% to 44% across periods. The findings suggest that currently the literature in JASP does not directly provide SEP professionals with effective knowledge application for working with coaches as a performer within the sport context. This review emphasizes the lack of research positioning of coach as a performing “other” within JASP and may increase awareness of viewing the coach as a performer within the field of applied sport psychology.

Lay Summary: This study was a review of research articles published within the Journal of Applied Sport Psychology (JASP) between 1989 and 2017. Only research with a main focus in coaching was included in the review. A multiple-step process was used to examine the articles and pinpoint the type of research about coaches that was being published in JASP. Results showed a large focus on how coaches contribute to their athletes’ performance, however, a lack of research examining aspects of the coach themselves and how they might enhance their own performance as a coach.     

Relationships and development during adolescence: Interpersonal adaptation to individual change

Developmental perspectives on relationships address Processes of dyadic adaptation to normative changes in individuals. Relationships with parents and peers during adolescence are a microcosm of these continuous adaptations. Three key themes from research on relationships during adolescence are examined: changes in relative distance from, and connectedness to, different categories of relationship partners; the coexistence of continuity and change in relationships; and increasing differentiation and interrelation of relationships. Findings from studies of adolescent relationships (1) illustrate the potential value of normative perspectives on relationship properties and conditions and (2) underscore the need for further research on processes of relationship change. Particularly needed are testable formulations regarding the processes of relationship change and attention to interrelations among significant close relationships.