Perceived parental pressure and perceived coach pressure in adolescent and adult sport

ObjectiveThe purpose of this study was to investigate whether adolescent and adult athletes’ perceptions of interpersonal perfectionistic performance pressures from parents and coaches differ as a function of athlete age.DesignA cross-sectional repeated-measures design was employed.MethodA total of 1544 youth sport athletes (M age = 15.44 years; SD = 2.12) and 1706 adult sport athletes (M age = 20.80 years; SD = 2.09) provided self-report levels of perceived parental pressure (PPP) and perceived coach pressure (PCP) in sport.ResultsStatistically significant interaction effects (ps < .001) were obtained from two repeated-measures analyses of variance. Interaction effects indicated that PPP tended to be lower in older/adult sport athletes than younger/adolescent sport athletes, whereas PCP tended to be higher in older/adult sport athletes than younger/adolescent sport athletes. Significant main effects (ps < .001) also revealed that, regardless of age and whether athletes competed in youth sport or adult sport, athletes had a tendency to perceive more pressure from coaches than parents.ConclusionResults highlight the need to differentiate between parents and coaches as potential sources of interpersonal perfectionistic pressures in sport. Results also demonstrate that athletes’ perceptions of parent and coach pressure surrounding performance expectations and standards in sport can differ as a function of athlete age. Future research that examines perfectionism in sport from a developmental perspective is recommended.     

Reciprocal relationships between contextual and situational motivation in a sport setting

ObjectiveThe purpose of this investigation was to test the hypothesized reciprocal top-down (TD) and bottom-up (BU) relationships between motivation at one given level and motivation at the next adjacent level in Vallerand's [1997, Toward a hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 271–360). New York: Academic Press] Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation. These postulates were examined in two studies, whereby the dynamic interplay between motivation toward a specific life domain (i.e., contextual) and the motivation experienced during a specific point in time (i.e., situational) was examined.Method and ResultsIn Study 1, a sample of collegiate basketball players (N=162) were followed during two games at a pre-season tournament. Reciprocal TD and BU effects between athletes’ contextual motivation toward their sport and the situational motivation they experienced during their games were expected. The influence of situational factors such as perceptions of personal and team performance on situational motivation was also examined. Results from path analyses provided support for our hypotheses. Study 2 (N=150) replicated the findings of Study 1 which followed athletes during an entire basketball season. Reciprocal TD and BU effects between athletes’ contextual motivation toward their sport and the situational motivation they experienced during games of each half of the season were observed. Moreover, contextual motivation assessed at the end of the season predicted athletes’ sustained interest in their sport. Results from Study 2, also provided support for the mediating role of psychological need satisfaction on the relationship between situational factors such as perceptions of personal and team performance on athletes’ situational motivation experienced during games.ConclusionImplications for intrinsic/extrinsic motivation theory and research in the sports domain are discussed.     

Exploring the Role of Sport Sense of Community in Perceived Athlete Burnout,Sport Motivation,and Engagement

The main purpose of this work was to examine the relationships between the sport sense of community, athlete burnout, engagement, and motivation in adolescent athletes, adopting a longitudinal perspective, and using both person- and variable-centred approaches. A total of 250 adolescent athletes were involved in the study. Athletes' perceptions of burnout, engagement and motivation significantly differed across two different clusters: high and low sport sense of community profiles. Consistent with our hypothesis, sport sense of community dimensions (i.e., satisfaction of needs and influence) negatively predicted athlete burnout and controlled motivation, and positively predicted engagement and autonomous motivation six months later.

Lay Summary: Athlete burnout is associated with negative consequences for athletes’ well-being, whereas engagement reflects a positive state. The sport sense of community refers to the athletes’ relationship with their sport environment. In this study, we provided preliminary evidence of the protective role of the sport sense of community on athlete burnout.     

On the interpersonal context of adolescents’ sport motivation

ObjectivesTo gain a better understanding of how adolescent athletes make sense of the interpersonal context and its motivational influence in sport. A second purpose was to develop a model explaining the influence of the interpersonal context on the sport motivation of the participants in this study.DesignQualitative cross-case study.MethodsTwelve adolescents (ages 13–17) involved in competitive sport, participated in 24 in-depth semi-structured interviews.ResultsQualitative analyses revealed that other individuals played five major roles on the sport motivation of the participants in this study: (a) providers of support, (b) sources of pressure and control, (c) sources of competence-relevant information, (d) agents of socialization of achievement orientations, and (e) models to emulate. Further, athletes saw a fairly large number of individuals, besides parents and coaches, as involved in playing these roles.ConclusionsResults from this study extend the literature by providing insights into how adolescents make sense of and integrate different motivational influences from the interpersonal context relative to their sport practice.     

Intrinsic motivation and individual deliberate practice are reciprocally related: Evidence from a longitudinal study of adolescent team sport athletes

ObjectiveThere is limited understanding of how sport motivation is associated with deliberate practice in youth team sport athletes. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine prospective associations between intrinsic motivation and individual deliberate practice in specializing team sport athletes.DesignLongitudinal.MethodEstonian adolescent team sport athletes (N = 163; M_age – 13.6 years at the beginning of study) completed the Sport Motivation Scale and training diary across a 12-month period.ResultsBoth individual deliberate practice and intrinsic motivation increased over the 1-year period. Greater baseline intrinsic motivation predicted subsequent individual deliberate practice and greater initial individual deliberate practice predicted greater subsequent intrinsic motivation. The bidirectional relationship between athletes intrinsic motivation and individual deliberate practice were replicated across both time lags.ConclusionThe findings have significant implications for the importance placed on intrinsic motivation as a means of increasing of individual deliberate practice as well being an important outcome variable in specializing team sport athletes.     

Searching for an optimal balance: Dual career experiences of Swedish adolescent athletes

ObjectivesThe paper presents a national level Swedish project aimed at examining adolescent student-athletes' dual career experiences (including sport, studies, and private life) during their first year at national elite sport schools (Swedish abbreviation RIGs will be used) with a particular focus on development of their athletic and student identities. The developmental model of transitions faced by athletes (Wylleman & Lavallee, 2004) and the athletic career transition model (Stambulova, 2003) served as underlying frameworks.DesignA longitudinal mixed-method research design was used with autumn-to-spring quantitative and qualitative parts.MethodSixteen year old student-athletes, representing 27 sports and 33 RIGs (n = 261 in the first and n = 250 in the second measurement), completed three quantitative instruments. Additionally, in-depth interviews were conducted with 10 participants.ResultsResults revealed (a) significant changes in the participants' transition/adaptation variables from the first to the second measurement accompanied by rather high perceived quality of adjustment at RIG both at the beginning and at the end of the educational year; (b) significant contributions of the transition variables to the perceived quality of adjustment with personal resources as a key predictor; (c) significantly higher athletic than student identity in both quantitative measurements, but with inter- and intra-individual differences with regard to balancing the two shown by the qualitative data.ConclusionsThe study contributes to deeper understanding of dual career experiences of Swedish adolescent athletes; the authors provide recommendations for psychological dual career support services at RIGs and outline future research in the Swedish dual career model.     

An adolescent perspective on injury recovery and the return to sport

ObjectivesThe purpose of this investigation was to examine adolescent athletes' injury recovery and return-to-sport experiences. Given previous research highlighting competence, autonomy, and relatedness concerns among returning athletes (Podlog & Eklund, 2006), we sought to examine the extent to which basic psychological needs theory (BPNT: Ryan & Deci, 2007) could be used as framework for interpreting the research findings.DesignA qualitative design was employed in the present investigation.MethodEleven Australian athletes (M age = 15.3) who had incurred a range of severe injuries (e.g., anterior cruciate ligament tears, shoulder dislocations) were interviewed on 2–3 occasions (n = 27 interviews) spanning an 11-month period.ResultsAnalysis of the data revealed the following four key themes: (a) injury stress, (b) coping strategies, (c) experiences with social support, and (d) recovery outcomes. Injury stress provides insights into a range of stressors and strain responses reported by the adolescents across the recovery phases, while the theme on coping highlights the specific strategies used to maintain motivation, reduce uncertainties associated with the injury experience, and to keep focused on future athletic attainment. The third theme, experiences with social support, considers the transactions the adolescents held with members of their social network throughout their recovery. The final theme, recovery outcomes, describes participant perceptions of a successful/unsuccessful recovery and stress-related growth.ConclusionsResults suggest that competence and relatedness issues highlighted in BPNT may be relevant in exploring adolescent athletes' injury experience. Somewhat less evidence for the autonomy dimension of BPNT was apparent in adolescent comments.     

Social-contextual and intrapersonal antecedents of coaches' basic need satisfaction: The intervening variable effect of providing autonomy-supportive coaching

ObjectivesBased on Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2012) and in line with Mageau and Vallerand's (2003) motivational model of the coach-athlete relationship, a new model involving antecedents associated with coaches' self-report measure of total need satisfaction (TNS) was tested. This model hypothesized that: (1) coaches' perceptions of a socially united group of athletes and their self-determined motivation for coaching would relate positively to coaches' provision of autonomy-supportive coaching (ASC), whereas perception of parental pressure in the youth sport context would relate negatively to coaches' provision of ASC; (2) coaches' provision of ASC towards their athletes would, in turn, relate positively to their self-report measure of TNS; and (3) the relation between coaches' perceptions of the sport context, along with their self-determined motivation for coaching, and coaches' self-report measure of TNS would be mediated by coaches' own provision of ASC.DesignA cross-sectional study.MethodsParticipants were 222 (M_age = 42.3, SD = 6.1) youth soccer coaches.ResultsSEM analyses supported the hypothesized model in which coaches' perceptions of a socially united group of athletes and their self-determined motivation for coaching related positively to coaches' self-report measure of TNS through coaches' provision of ASC. In contrast, coaches' perceptions of parental pressure in the youth sport context was unrelated to coaches' self-report measure of TNS via coaches' provision of ASC.ConclusionsFindings support previous research by demonstrating the psychological benefit of providing autonomy support to others.     

High school athletes’ self-determined motivation: The independent and interactive effects of coach,father, and mother autonomy support

ObjectivesThe purpose of the study was to examine the independent and interactive influences of athletes’ perceptions of autonomy support from their coaches, fathers, and mothers on the athletes’ self-determined motivation.DesignCross-sectional survey.MethodHigh school athletes (N = 335; M age = 15.75 years; 62.4% female; 84.2% Caucasian) completed surveys assessing the constructs of interest near the end of their season.ResultsHierarchical regression analysis results showed that autonomy support from all three social agents significantly and positively predicted self-determined motivation (R² = 0.32), and the two- and three-way interactions significantly added to the prediction (total R² = 0.35). Results showed that a relatively high level of self-determined motivation was associated with the perception that at least two of the three social agents provided high levels of autonomy support.ConclusionsThe provision of autonomy support from coaches, mothers, and fathers relate to athletes’ self-determined motivation both independently and interactively.     

Pre- to Post-Season Changes in the Intrinsic Motivation of First Year College Athletes: Relationships with Coaching Behavior and Scholarship Status

This study examined whether the intrinsic motivation levels of first-year college athletes changed from pre- to post-season as a function of their scholarship status or their perceptions of their coaches' behavior. Division I college athletes ( N = 72) completed questionnaires assessing their intrinsic motivation at the beginning and end of their first year of participation. They also reported their scholarship status and their perceptions of their coaches' behaviors over the season. Contrary to predictions, results revealed that neither scholarship status nor time affected the athletes' level of intrinsic motivation. Strong support for the relationship between athletes' perceptions of their coaches' behavior and changes in athletes' level of intrinsic motivation over the season, however, emerged. Increases in athletes' level of intrinsic motivation were associated with athletes' perceptions that their coaches exhibited high frequencies of training and instruction behavior, and low frequencies of autocratic behavior and social support. Results are discussed in relation to cognitive evaluation theory and previous research on intrinsic motivation.     

Group cohesion and relatedness as predictors of self-determined motivation and burnout in adolescent female athletes

ObjectivesAthlete burnout is the result of a maladaptive sport experience that is influenced by the social context. A salient social contextual feature of youth sport is group cohesion. Cohesion may link with burnout through its association with relatedness and self-determined motivation. The current study was designed to test a model in which cohesion associates with burnout by way of relatedness and self-determined motivation.DesignCross-sectional survey-based study.MethodFemale youth soccer athletes (N = 276; M age = 14.9 years, SD = 1.3) completed measures of task and social cohesion, relatedness, self-determined motivation, and burnout.ResultsTask (β = 0.26) and social (β = 0.59) cohesion associated with perceptions of relatedness. In turn, relatedness positively linked with self-determined motivation (β = 0.38), which in turn negatively associated with global burnout (β = −0.79). The indirect effects from task cohesion to burnout (β = −0.08) and from social cohesion to burnout (β = −0.18) by way of relatedness and self-determined motivation were significant.ConclusionsResults support the proposed model whereby greater cohesion associates with an athlete’s feelings of relatedness, which links to more self-determined motivation and, consequently, lower burnout perceptions. Future research is needed to assess support for causality of these links and explore how contextual factors such as the teammate-created motivational climate contributes to group cohesion and relatedness perceptions within this burnout model.     

Autonomy support from parents and coaches: Synergistic or compensatory effects on sport-related outcomes of adolescent-athletes?

ObjectivesThis study examined how autonomy support from parents and autonomy support from coaches are associated with sport-related outcomes of adolescent-athletes. Two alternative hypotheses were proposed: (a) a synergistic socialization interaction in which high levels of autonomy support provided by parents and coaches are both needed to obtain the most positive sport-related outcomes, (b) a compensatory-protective interaction in which coaching autonomy support is more important for sport-related outcomes in athletes perceiving lower levels of parental autonomy support.DesignTwo studies using prospective designs.MethodStudy 1 was conducted with adolescent soccer players (N = 46) and Study 2 was conducted with gymnasts (N = 85). In both studies, athletes reported the extent to which they perceived their parents and coaches provided autonomy support. Athletes also completed scales assessing their motivation toward sport (Studies 1 and 2), situational motivation prior to and following a competition (Study 2), and need satisfaction (Study 1). Sport achievement and performance were also assessed in the form of goal attainment (Study 1), self-reported achievement following the competition (Study 2), and flow states (Study 2). Hierarchical moderated regressions were conducted in order to test our competing hypotheses.ResultsAnalyses provided support for the compensatory-protective interaction hypothesis. Coaching autonomy support was more strongly related to sport motivation, need satisfaction, sport achievement, and flow in athletes who perceived lower level of parental autonomy support.ConclusionsThis research program provided support for the study of the interactive effect of perceived autonomy support from distinct socialization agents (i.e., parents and coaches) and its impact on adolescent-athletes.     

A Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Performance Enhancement Attitude Scale for adult and adolescent athletes

ObjectivesThe Performance Enhancement Attitude Scale (PEAS; Petróczi & Aidman, 2009) is an extensively used questionnaire to assess doping attitudes among adult and adolescent athletes. To date, however, there is limited evidence to support the structure of the PEAS with either adult or adolescent athletes. The aim of this paper was to assess the factor structure of the PEAS with adult and adolescent athletes.DesignCross-sectional.MethodsOne thousand, one-hundred and fifty-four athletes, who were aged between 12 and 68 years (M age = 21.76 years, SD = 7.68) completed the PEAS in the presence of a research assistant. We subjected the data to Confirmatory Factor Analysis.ResultsThe original 17-item PEAS displayed a poor model among the overall sample, and with the sub-samples of adult and adolescent athletes. The 11-item, 8-item, and 6-item versions of the PEAS, which were used in previous studies, provided a better fit than the original 17-item PEAS. The 8-item version of the PEAS demonstrated the best fit for adults, but no model exhibited a good fit with adolescent athletes.ConclusionsScholars could consider using the 8-item version of the PEAS with adults. Our data, however, infers that researchers should use the PEAS with caution to assess doping attitudes among adolescent athletes, due to the poor model fit of all versions tested. The accurate assessment of attitudes towards doping among adolescent athletes requires questionnaires specifically designed for this population, and grounded in an appropriate theoretical framework.     

Autonomy support and control within mother-father parenting structures: A person-centered approach in youth sport

In the youth sport context, parents play an important role in the motivation of adolescent athletes. From a self-determination theory viewpoint, the provision of autonomy support versus control by parents is an essential part of this socialization process. The purpose of the present study was threefold: (a) identify distinct mother-father parenting profiles of autonomy support and control based on perceptions of adolescent athletes, (b) examine the unique influence of mother-father parenting profiles on adolescent athletes' motivational responses (i.e., parent-to-child effects), and (c) understand the contribution of adolescent athletes' motivation to the emergence of these mother-father parenting profiles (i.e., child-to-parent effects). To test our hypotheses, a person-centered approach (latent profile analysis) was employed to analyze data collected from a sample of high school athletes (N = 264; Mage = 15.7 years, 64% female). Results provided evidence supporting a four-profile solution: Strong Autonomy Support Dominant: Both Parents (n = 26, 9.8%), Weak Control Dominant: Both Parents (n = 111, 42.0%), Moderate Autonomy Support and Control: Both Parents (n = 21, 8.0%), and Weak Autonomy Support Dominant: Both Parents (n = 106, 40.2%). The four mother-father parenting profiles were found to be differentially predicted by, and predictive of, adolescent athletes' adaptive and maladaptive motivational responses (i.e., basic psychological needs satisfaction, autonomous and controlled motivation). This study illuminated a general pattern of congruency in the provision of autonomy support and control by parents within mother-father parenting structures and contributed empirical evidence pointing to the reciprocal nature of interpersonal processes in parent-athlete relationships.     

Teammate social support,burnout, and self-determined motivation in collegiate athletes

ObjectiveThere is limited understanding of how specific components of social support are associated with athlete burnout and self-determined motivation, as most investigations have exclusively targeted overall support satisfaction. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine if perceived support availability and received support, over and above support satisfaction, were associated with these correlates of psychological well-being in athletes. We also examined potential team-level variation in burnout and self-determined motivation.DesignCross-sectional.MethodUnited States college athletes (N = 235; M_age = 19.8 years) completed reliable and valid assessments of study variables via an online questionnaire.ResultsMultilevel linear modeling showed a lack of team-level variation in burnout and self-determined motivation. Regression analyses showed perceived support availability to be inversely associated with burnout and positively associated with self-determined motivation. This was over and above support satisfaction, which demonstrated the same pattern of associations. Received support did not meaningfully associate with burnout or self-determined motivation over and above support satisfaction.ConclusionResults suggest that the perception of support availability from teammates, regardless of received support, was an important correlate of burnout and self-determined motivation in sport. Also, the general lack of team-level variation in the criterion variables suggests that burnout and self-determined motivation perceptions were largely driven by individual experiences.     

Guidance counselling as a whole school responsibility in the Irish post primary sector

ABSTRACT

This paper will deliberate upon the relevance of guidance counselling as a ‘whole school’ responsibility in the context of recent policy and practice changes in the Irish post primary sector since the Government of Ireland Budget 2012. Pertinent issues including the complexities of delivering a whole school approach to guidance counselling during a period of resource rationalisation will be addressed through the findings from recent case study research [Hearne, L., Geary, T., & Martin, N. (2016). A single case study of a whole school approach to guidance counselling in an Irish post-primary school; Case report. Retrieved from University of Limerick website: http://www.ul.ie/soedu/node/1481]. A single explanatory case study methodology investigated the complex phenomenon and interventions of whole school guidance counselling in a mixed gender school in the context of increasing demands for evidence-based data and methodological sophistication in lifelong guidance [European Lifelong Guidance Policy Network. (2015a). The evidence base on lifelong guidance; A guide to key findings for effective policy and practice, extended summary. Jyväskylä: Kariteam; Hearne, L. (2009). Towards an understanding of the measurement of individual progression in adult guidance (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Waterford Institute of Technology, Waterford; Stake, R. E. (2004). Standards-based & responsive evaluation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Yin, R. K. (2014). Case study research (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage].     

Exploring the life skills needs of British adolescent athletes

ObjectivesYouth sport programs have been designed to facilitate positive development of young sports people by teaching life skills. It is unclear which life skills are needed by adolescent athletes and which life skills should be included in youth sport programs. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore how life skills are defined, which life skills British adolescent athletes need, and which life skills are the most important.Design and methodNineteen adolescent athletes, 10 coaches, 4 experts in sport psychology (pilot group) and 5 graduate students (pilot group) participated in a series of focus groups. An inductive analysis revealed how life skills are defined, which life skills British adolescent athletes need, and of these skills which are the most important.ResultsLife skills were defined as ranges of transferable skills needed for everyday life, by everybody, that help people thrive. Participants described the need for interpersonal skills including social skills, respect, leadership, family interactions, and communication. Personal skills including self-organization, discipline, self-reliance, goal setting, managing performance outcomes, and motivation, were also reported. Social skills were identified as the most important life skills.ConclusionsIn conclusion, findings add support to existing positive youth development research while adding an insight into which life skills should be built into youth sport programs in the United Kingdom.     

Macronutrient intake as a prospective predictor of depressive symptom severity: An exploratory study with adolescent elite athletes

BackgroundAppropriate availability of macro- and micronutrients has an important impact on cognitive performance, mood and mental health. Although the critical role of nutrition for elite athletes’ performance was recognized early on, little is known about whether consumption of specific macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, fat) predict the development of future depressive symptoms in adolescent elite athletes.MethodsParticipants were recruited from three Swiss Olympic Partner Schools (SOPS) in the Northwestern German speaking part of Switzerland. A total of 97 adolescent elite athletes (38% girls, M_age = 16.35 ± 1.19) participated in the study. Depressive symptoms (PHQ9) were assessed at baseline and after 10 months follow-up. A 3-day food recall was completed three months after the baseline assessment. Linear regression analyses were used to examine whether macronutrients predict depression symptom severity after controlling for covariates and baseline depressive symptoms.ResultsHigher protein consumption in athletes was a prospective predictor of lower depressive symptom severity at follow-up (β = −35, p < .05). Several deviations from recommended nutritional standards were observed in elite athletes.ConclusionsThe findings of this exploratory study support the notion that dietary behaviour may be prospectively associated with athletes’ mental health. However, more research is required with larger samples and more in-depth assessment techniques. Future research should also examine whether nutrition education and dietary modification can be used to prevent depressive symptoms among adolescent elite athletes.     

Perfectionism and burnout in junior elite soccer players: The mediating influence of unconditional self-acceptance

ObjectivesIt has been argued that elite junior athletes may be especially vulnerable to the development of burnout [Coakley, D. (1992). Burnout among adolescent athletes: A personal failure or social problem. Sociology, 9, 271–285; Feigley, D. A. (1984). Psychological burnout in high-level athletes. The Physician and Sports Medicine, 12, 108–119; Raedeke, T. D. (1997). Is athlete burnout more than just stress? A sport commitment perspective. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 19, 396–418]. Few studies to date have examined the psychological mechanisms that may underpin this vulnerability. One exception was a study by Gould, Tuffrey, Udry, and Loehr [(1996). Burnout in competitive junior tennis players: I. A quantitative psychological assessment. The Sport Psychologist, 10, 332–340], which found that a form of perfectionism reflecting a preoccupation with avoiding mistakes differentiated between burnout and non-burnout tennis players. The first purpose of the present investigation was to extend this research and examine the influence of self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism on burnout in elite junior soccer players. A second purpose was to examine whether the association between perfectionism and burnout was mediated by unconditional self-acceptance.DesignA correlational design was employed.MethodOne hundred and fifty-one soccer players (M age=14.4 years, SD=2.4 years) completed an inventory that included Flett and Hewitt's (1991) Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, Chamberlain and Haaga's (2003) Unconditional Self-acceptance Scale, and Raedeke and Smith's [(2001). Development and preliminary validation of an athlete burnout measure. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 23, 281–306] Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ).ResultsStructural equation modeling indicated that unconditional self-acceptance partially mediated the relationship between the two dimensions of perfectionism and athlete burnout. Contrary to the hypotheses, self-oriented perfectionism demonstrated both a positive indirect association with symptoms of burnout, as well as a direct inverse relationship.ConclusionThe findings provide support for the contention that a contingent sense of self-worth is central to both socially prescribed and self-oriented perfectionism [Flett, Besser, Davis, &; Hewitt (2003). Dimensions of perfectionism, unconditional self-acceptance, and depression. Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 21, 119–138; Flett, Hewitt, Oliver, &; MacDonald (2002). Perfectionism in children and their parents: A developmental analysis. In G. L. Flett &; P. Hewitt (Eds.), Perfectionism: Theory, research and treatment (pp. 89–132). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association], and that this association may underpin maladaptive achievement striving and increase vulnerability to athlete burnout.