Reliable and Valid Coding of Thin Slices of Video Footage: Applicability to the Assessment of Mother-Child Interactions

When using behavioral-observation methods for coding video footage, it is unknown how much time of an interaction needs to be coded to gain results that are representative for the behavior of interest. The current study examined this problem using the INTAKT, a standardized observational measure for assessing the quality of mother-child interactions. Results from coding only 10 min of each video (i.e., thin slices) were compared with results from coding the remaining parts (averaging about 40 min) of the interaction. Inter-rater agreement for the short versions taken from the beginning or the middle, but not the end of the interactions indicated satisfactory observer accuracy. Coding results did not differ between short and long video sequences, when sequences were taken from the middle of the interactions. Importantly, characteristic differences between different interactive situations were equally well represented in the short and long video sequences. Therefore, our results show that coding only 10 min of an interaction is as reliable and valid as coding full-length videos, if those short sequences are taken from the middle of an interaction. Our findings support the idea that for every method, it is necessary to individually determine the window duration that is long enough to gain results that are reliable and valid.     

群体面孔情绪的整体编码及其影响因素

当面孔以群体形式出现,认知神经系统会自动整合情绪信息提取平均情绪,此过程被称为群体面孔情绪的整体编码。探讨其与低水平整体表征的分离,与个体表征的关系及神经活动特点是揭示其加工机制的关键,但目前尚未形成系统性模型。未来应综合利用眼动、神经电生理和脑成像技术,结合注意、记忆及社会线索进一步拓展对其认知神经机制和影响因素的研究,同时关注具有认知情感障碍的特殊人群,并从毕生发展的角度探索其发展轨迹。     

Spike coding from the perspective of a neurone

In this paper, we compare existing methods for quantifying the coding capacity of a spike train, and review recent developments in the application of information theory to neural coding. We present novel methods for characterising single-unit activity based on the perspective of a downstream neurone and propose a simple yet universally applicable framework to characterise the order of complexity of neural coding by single units. We establish four orders of complexity in the capacity for neural coding. First-order coding, quantified by firing rates, is conveyed by frequencies and is thus entirely described by first moment processes. Second-order coding, represented by the variability of interspike intervals, is quantified by the log interval entropy. Third-order coding is the result of spike motifs that associate adjacent inter-spike intervals beyond chance levels; it is described by the joint interval histogram, and is measured by the mutual information between adjacent log intervals. Finally, nonstationarities in activity represent coding of the fourth-order that arise from the effects of a known or unknown stimulus.     

A Distributed Connectionist Production System

DCPS is a connectionist production system interpreter that uses distributed representations. As a connectionist model it consists of many simple, richly interconnected neuron-like computing units that cooperate to solve problems in parallel. One motivation for constructing DCPS was to demonstrate that connectionist models are capable of representing and using explicit rules. A second motivation was to show how "coarse coding" or "distributed representations" can be used to construct a working memory that requires far fewer units than the number of different facts that can potentially be stored. The simulation we present is intended as a detailed demonstration of the feasibility of certain ideas and should not be viewed as a full implementation of production systems. Our current model only has a few of the many interesting emergent properties that we eventually hope to demonstrate: It is damage-resistant, it performs matching and variable binding by massively parallel constraint satisfaction, and the capacity of its working memory is dependent on the similarity of the items being stored.     

A METHOD FOR ESTABLISHING THE REPRESENTATIONAL VALIDITY OF INTERACTION CODING SYSTEMS: DO WE SEE WHAT THEY SEE?

This paper offers a new methodological approach to establishing the validity of interaction coding schemes, and it reports research which applies these procedures to three coding systems that have been used to study small group decision making: Bales' (1950) Interaction Process Analysis System, Fisher's (1970) Decision Proposal Coding System, and Mabry's (1975) Pattern Variable Coding System. The procedures offered here provide a method for determining whether the functions or constructs identified by a coding system are part of the common meanings ascribed to the participants in the interaction. Of the three coding systems evaluated in the study, the IPA System represented subjects' interpretations of decision-making interaction better than the Decision Proposal System, which, in turn, performed better than the Pattern Variable System.     

群体过程与互动分析系统

群体过程由各种行动和行为反应组成,具有动态性和复杂性。以往研究根据群体均衡理论、功能观点或时间理论等分别开发了各种基于研究者视角的群体互动过程观察分析系统。但很多研究结论并不一致,主要原因在于各个分析系统的关注点不同。本研究从信效度、理论基础、分析对象以及编码难易等角度总结了各个系统的优点和不足,并进一步提出未来研究可能的方向：构建适当的群体决策动态实验任务、明确群体过程作用机制、以及开发运用于实践的群体互动过程分析系统。     

A simple encoding and recording system for small group observation

A simple and inexpensive system for coding and recording interaction patterns in small groups is described. It consists of a keyboard and a standard tape recorder, and it is capable of storing sequential data using up to 36 codes. Its main application is in the study of speaker-target patterns, but it can also be used in encoding up to 12 behavioral codes, or six speakers and 6 codes. The keyboard costs less than $200 and is used with conventional tape recorders and minicomputers available at most research sites.     

类别变量的中介效应分析

在心理学和其他社科研究领域,研究者能熟练地进行连续变量的中介效应分析,但面对自变量、中介变量或(和)因变量为类别变量的中介效应分析,研究者往往束手无策。在阐述类别自变量中介分析方法的基础上,我们建议使用整体和相对中介相结合的类别自变量中介分析方法,并给出了分析流程。以二分因变量为例,讨论了中介变量或(和)因变量为类别变量的中介分析方法的发展过程(即尺度统一的过程),建议通过检验Za×Zb的显著性来判断中介效应的显著性。用二个实际例子演示如何进行类别变量的中介效应分析。最后展望了类别变量的中介效应分析研究的拓展方向。     

自豪的结构、测量、表达与识别

自豪是个体把一个成功事件或积极事件归因于自身能力或努力的结果时所产生的一种积极的主观情绪体验。自豪作为一种自我意识情绪,具有双维结构,可以分为真实的自豪和自大的自豪。自豪的非言语表达和识别具有跨文化的普遍性。对自豪的测量,目前大多采用自我评定和非言语表达编码两种方式。     

The Influence of Music on Memory

Allan Paivio's dual-coding hypothesis of retention predicts that stimuli high in imagery value facilitate imaginal processing, while high meaningfulness stimuli facilitate verbal processing. When verbal and imaginal instructional sets have been used to test the predicted interactions, as mentioned above, the findings have almost always been negative, indicating a lack of support for a dual-process theory of coding in retention.

In the present study it was hypothesized that instructional sets offer inadequate tests of dual or multiple-process theories because the proactive history of the verbal and imaginal semantic properties of the word lists determine coding in retention. That hypothesis was tested in two studies, one with children and one with adults. Verbal and imaginal attributes were varied in instructional sets and in word lists. As hypothesized, the interaction predicted by a dual-process theory of coding occurred in both studies (p < .0001). The interaction involved verbal and imaginal word attributes, but not the instructional sets.

The findings are relevant to the testing of predictions from dual-process theories of retention and to reinterpretation of the results of earlier findings. In this study and in many related ones reviewed in the introduction, the “elusive” interaction predicted by a dual-process theory regularly does occur, and it seems to be determined by attributes of word lists.     

Comparison of video- and EMG-based evaluations of the magnitude of children’s emotion-modulated startle response

We investigated the reliability and validity of a video-based method of measuring the magnitude of children’s emotion-modulated startle response when electromyographic (EMG) measurement is not feasible. Thirty-one children between the ages of 4 and 7 years were videotaped while watching short video clips designed to elicit happiness or fear. Embedded in the audio track of the video clips were acoustic startle probes. A coding system was developed to quantify from the video record the strength of the eye-blink startle response to the probes. EMG measurement of the eye blink was obtained simultaneously. Intercoder reliability for the video coding was high (Cohen’sκ = .90). The average within-subjects probe-by-probe correlation between the EMG- and video-based methods was .84. Group-level correlations between the methods were also strong, and there was some evidence of emotion modulation of the startle response with both the EMG- and the video-derived data. Although the video method cannot be used to assess the latency, probability, or duration of startle blinks, the findings indicate that it can serve as a valid proxy of EMG in the assessment of the magnitude of emotion-modulated startle in studies of children conducted outside of a laboratory setting, where traditional psychophysiological methods are not feasible.     

A mathematical model of the interaction between bottom-up and top-down attention controllers in response to a target and a distractor in human beings

Top-down and bottom-up attention are two systems that allocate our neuronal resources for processing different stimuli. To do the tasks efficiently, it is required to suppress irrelevant information. In the presence of both target and distractor, synchronization or desynchronization between the activities of neuronal responses has been observed in different regions of the brain. In the current study, we have proposed a mathematical model to show how the interaction between top-down and bottom-up attention, through synchronization and desynchronization, can lead to the suppression of distractor effects in human beings. The model structure was inspired by the results of neurological studies. The model consists of several oscillating units as a representation of top-down and bottom-up neuronal processing resources. These units communicate with each other through synchronization and desynchronization procedures.Results of simulations showed that how the mutual interaction between top-down and bottom-up units, which was done using synchronization and desynchronization procedures, led to the selective or divided attention between the target and distractor. It was shown that the activity of responsive units to the distractor could be suppressed by a desynchronous signal transmitted from the top-down attention unit. This model suggests a justification for brain waves synchronization or desynchronization during attentionally demand tasks. The proposed model also provides a tool to investigate the effect of some influencing factors such as the distractor intensity or similarity between the distractor and the target on the function of top-down and bottom-up systems.     

Orthogonality is not a panacea: backpropagation and "catastrophic interference"

Connectionist models with the backpropagation learning rule are said to exhibit catastrophic interference (or forgetting) with sequential training. Subsequent works showed that interference can be reduced by using orthogonal inputs. This study investigated, with a more rigorous assessment method, whether all orthogonal inputs lead to comparable extent of interference using three coding schemes. The results revealed large differences between the coding schemes. With larger networks, dense inputs led to severer interference compared with sparse inputs. With smaller networks, all the three schemes led to comparable extent of interference. Therefore, this study proved that not all the orthogonal inputs cause the same extent of interference, and that severity of interference depends on the interaction of the input coding scheme and the network size.     

Studying the process of psychoanalytic parent–infant psychotherapy: Embodied and discursive aspects

This paper presents findings from an intensive, mixed methods case study of one session of psychoanalytic parent–infant psychotherapy (PPIP) addressing early relational trauma, and aims to shed light on the multimodal interactive processes that take place in the moment-to-moment exchanges comprising the therapeutic encounter. Different research methods were used on video material from PPIP sessions, including microanalysis of adult–infant interactions, discourse analysis of talk, and coding systems developed to study parent–infant interaction. These different perspectives were brought together with the clinical narrative to illuminate the complex, dynamic processes of parent–infant–therapist interaction. More specifically, the detailed analysis of one interactive episode revealed brief behavioral manifestations of fearful and disoriented states of mind, reflecting dysregulated interaction between mother and infant, which also powerfully affected the therapist. The processes through which the therapist gradually resolves this rupture are also described in detail. Through this pilot study, we were able to show that it is possible to systematically study the process of PPIP. The study contributes to the growing psychotherapy research literature that takes into account both the verbal domain and implicit, interactional processes in therapeutic practice, and underscores the therapist's comprehensive engagement in the therapeutic process.     

Parent–Child Interaction in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Their Siblings: Choosing a Coding Strategy

The parent-child interaction strongly influences the emotional, behavioural, and cognitive development of young children. The nature of parent-child interactions differs in families with children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), but research still entails a lot of inconsistencies and there is no consensus as to how these interactions should be coded. The parent-child interaction between sixteen mothers and their child with ASD (M _age?=?68 months) and a younger sibling without ASD (M _age?=?48 months) in a within-family study were coded using both a global and frequency coding scheme. Global and frequency codes of the same sample were compared to explore the value of each coding method and how they could complement each other. In addition, each coding method’s ability to detect group differences was evaluated. We found that mothers used an interaction style characterized by more support and structure, and clearer instructions in interaction with their children without ASD. In addition, global rating results suggested that within the ASD group, mothers may adapt their behaviour to the specific abilities of their child. Regarding the evaluation of coding method, results showed overlap between conceptually similar constructs included in both coding schemes. Although frequency coding clearly has its value, more qualitative aspects of the interaction were better captured by global rating scales and global rating was more time efficient. For this purpose, global ratings might be preferable over frequency coding.     

Instrumentation and software report: Computer-assisted coding of videotape material

The coding system described was originally devised to facilitate the analysis of mother-infant interaction. Our aims were to provide accurate measures of the duration of different activities, to enable identification of particular actions in order to carry out sequential analyses, and to allow systematic assessment and improvement of reliability. At the time recording began, there appeared to be no readily available systems which achieved all of these aims. The system described here enables coded videotape material to be examined with the assistance of a computer. This is implemented through two subsystems, those of record and playback. In the playback subsystem the behaviour units identified by a coder are mapped on to this record. This results in a protocol of behaviour on a highly accurate time base.     

Keeping an “I” on PRIDE: Measuring Imitation in Parent-Child Interaction Therapy

In parent–child interaction therapy (PCIT), therapists encourage parents to imitate child behaviors in order to convey approval of the child’s actions and promote the development of linguistic and social–cognitive skills. However, the Dyadic Parent-Child Interaction Coding System (DPICS-IV), used to measure skills taught during PCIT, does not include guidelines for coding parent–child imitation, making it difficult to determine how PCIT affects it. The current study addresses this problem by developing guidelines for coding imitation, which were then used to code DPICS-IV segments from 58 Mexican American families that participated in a past clinical trial. Results suggest that these coding guidelines can be used to reliably measure parent and child imitation. A series of additional analyses supported the construct validity of the codes. Specifically, there was a trend for parent imitation, but not child imitation, to increase more from pre–post treatment in PCIT relative to treatment as usual. In addition, parents who imitate their children were found to have children who imitate them more in return. Finally, improvement in parent imitation, but not child imitation, was significantly related to a decrease in child behavior problems. Further study is needed to determine the optimal frequency of imitation, and findings suggest that additional attention to coaching imitation may be warranted.     

Instrumentation and software report: Computer-assisted coding of videotape material

The coding system described was originally devised to facilitate the analysis of mother-infant interaction. Our aims were to provide accurate measures of the duration of different activities, to enable identification of particular actions in order to carry out sequential analyses, and to allow systematic assessment and improvement of reliability. At the time recording began, there appeared to be no readily available systems which achieved all of these aims. The system described here enables coded videotape material to be examined with the assistance of a computer. This is implemented through two subsystems, those of record and playback. In the playback subsystem the behaviour units identified by a coder are mapped on to this record. This results in a protocol of behaviour on a highly accurate time base.     

An efficient coding approach to the debate on grounded cognition

The debate between the amodal and the grounded views of cognition seems to be stuck. Their only substantial disagreement is about the vehicle or format of concepts. Amodal theorists reject the grounded claim that concepts are couched in the same modality-specific format as representations in sensory systems. The problem is that there is no clear characterization of (modal or amodal) format or its neural correlate. In order to make the disagreement empirically meaningful and move forward in the discussion we need a neurocognitive criterion for representational format. I argue that efficient coding models in computational neuroscience can be used to characterize modal codes: These are codes which satisfy special informational demands imposed by sensory tasks. Additionally, I examine recent studies on neural coding and argue that although they do not provide conclusive evidence for either the grounded or the amodal views, they can be used to determine what predictions these approaches can make and what experimental and theoretical developments would be required to settle the debate.