Reconsidering the Factor Structure of the Beavers Interactional Scales: Do External Ratings Mirror Self-Reports?

Factor analytic studies indicate that family relationships assessed by self-reports may be most clearly and parsimoniously differentiated along three dimensions, namely, Affective Expression, Behavioral Control, and Shared Activity. The present study explored the question of whether this were true of family ratings by outside parties. Confirmatory factor analysis was used with three data sets (n = 97, 91, and 95; N = 283) employing the Beavers Interactional Scales of family functioning. Multicollinearity of the observed variables was a pervasive problem. When the redundancy of the observed variables was pared down so that there were two observed variables for each latent factor, these three factors in oblique relationship provided a good fit to the observed data.     

BIS and BAS interact with perceived parental affectionless control to predict personality disorder symptomatology

The objective of this study was to examine if and how two basic dimensions of temperament-behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and behavioral approach system (BAS) sensitivity-might interact with exposure to perceived parental affectionless control (AFC) to predict personality disorder (PD) symptomatology. Measures of BIS, BAS, AFC, and PD symptomatology were administered to a large nonclinical sample (n = 318). As predicted, exposure to AFC was positively associated with PD symptoms in general, BIS was positively associated with Cluster A and C symptoms, and BAS was positively associated with Cluster B symptoms. BIS and BAS were also found to interact with each other to predict Cluster B symptomatology. In addition, BIS, BAS, and maternal AFC interacted to predict Cluster A symptomatology. In the latter case, it was found that individuals who reported high BIS, high BAS, and high maternal AFC reported the highest overall level of Cluster A symptoms.     

Psychometric characteristics of Carver and White's BIS/BAS scales in Dutch adolescents and their mothers

The psychometric characteristics of Carver and White's (1994) BIS/BAS scales were examined in 2 groups of Dutch adolescents (497 early adolescents and 237 middle adolescents, M (Age) = 13.0 years and 16.4 years, respectively) and their middle-aged mothers (M (Age) = 45.2 years; N = 734). Confirmatory factor analyses revealed an acceptably fitting 2-factor model for adapted BIS /BAS scales in all 3 groups, reflecting separate BIS and BAS factors. Reliabilities of the 2 scales were satisfactory. The results supported the convergent validity of BIS and BAS scales. BIS was positively correlated with internalizing problem behaviors and neuroticism. BAS was positively correlated with externalizing problem behaviors and extraversion. The discriminant validity of the BIS/BAS scales received mixed support in our data. BIS was negatively correlated with extraversion, and BAS was not correlated with depression. However, BIS was also found to be correlated with externalizing problem behaviors, and BAS was positively correlated with neuroticism. In sum, the scales are suitable for use in research settings, but caution is advocated in application for clinical practice.     

Exploring Behavioral Activation and Inhibition Sensitivities Among College Students at Risk for Bipolar Spectrum Symptomatology

We explored cross-sectionally the roles in bipolar spectrum symptomatology of two broad motivational systems that are thought to control levels of responsiveness to cues of threat and reward, the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) and the Behavioral Activation System (BAS). Undergraduate students (n = 357) completed questionnaires regarding (a) bipolar spectrum disorders [the General Behavior Inventory (GBI), a well-established clinical screening measure], (b) current depression and mania symptoms (the Internal State Scale; ISS), and (c) BIS/BAS sensitivities (the BIS/BAS scales). Validated cutoff scores on the GBI were used to identify individuals at risk for a mood disorder. It was hypothesized that, among at-risk respondents, high BAS and low BIS levels would be associated with high current mania ratings, whereas low BAS and high BIS would be associated with high current depression ratings. Multiple regression analyses indicated that, among at-risk individuals (n = 63), BAS accounted for 27% of current mania symptoms but BIS did not contribute. For these individuals, BAS and BIS were both significant and together accounted for 44% of current depressive symptoms.     

Brief Book,Software and Test Announcements

The psychometric characteristics of Carver and White's (1994) BIS/BAS scales were examined in 2 groups of Dutch adolescents (497 early adolescents and 237 middle adolescents, M _Age = 13.0 years and 16.4 years, respectively) and their middle-aged mothers (M _Age = 45.2 years; N = 734). Confirmatory factor analyses revealed an acceptably fitting 2-factor model for adapted BIS /BAS scales in all 3 groups, reflecting separate BIS and BAS factors. Reliabilities of the 2 scales were satisfactory. The results supported the convergent validity of BIS and BAS scales. BIS was positively correlated with internalizing problem behaviors and neuroticism. BAS was positively correlated with externalizing problem behaviors and extraversion. The discriminant validity of the BIS/BAS scales received mixed support in our data. BIS was negatively correlated with extraversion, and BAS was not correlated with depression. However, BIS was also found to be correlated with externalizing problem behaviors, and BAS was positively correlated with neuroticism. In sum, the scales are suitable for use in research settings, but caution is advocated in application for clinical practice.     

Psychometric Properties of the Dutch BIS/BAS Scales

This study examined the reliability, factor structure, and convergent validity of the Dutch version of C. S. Carver and T. L. Whites (1994) Behavioral Approach System and Behavioral Inhibition System Scales (BIS/BAS Scales). For this purpose, the BIS/BAS Scales, a shortened version of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), and the Dickman Impulsivity Inventory (DII) were administered to 246 undergraduate students in The Netherlands. The internal consistency of the BIS/BAS Scales was sufficient. Further, exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis showed that the Dutch BIS/BAS Scales have a factor structure similar to the English version. Finally, BIS/BAS Scales were found to correlate in a theoretically meaningful way with extraversion, neuroticism, psychoticism, and impulsivity.     

Psychometric evaluation of the behavioral inhibition/behavioral activation scales in a large sample of outpatients with anxiety and mood disorders

The latent structure, reliability, and validity of the Behavioral Inhibition/Behavioral Activation Scales (BIS/BAS; C. L. Carver and T. L. White, 1994) were examined in a large sample of outpatients (N = 1,825) with anxiety and mood disorders. Four subsamples were used for exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. In addition to generally upholding a latent structure found previously in nonclinical samples, results indicated measurement invariance of the BIS/BAS between genders and a higher order structure of the BAS scales. Convergent and discriminant validity of the BIS/BAS were supported by findings that the subscales correlated most strongly with measures of neighboring personality constructs (e.g., BIS with neuroticism, BAS with positive affect) than with measures of current anxiety and depression symptoms. Overall, the results support the psychometric properties of the BIS/BAS in this clinical sample.     

The behavioral inhibition system and the verbal information pathway to children's fears

The behavioral inhibition system (BIS) is the neurological substrate of trait anxiety and is linked to the development of anxiety disorders. Three experiments are reported that investigate the moderating influence of the BIS on 1 pathway to fear: threat information. In all studies, children were given verbal information about a set of novel animals, and their BIS sensitivity was measured. The results suggest that BIS sensitivity (a) facilitates attentional biases to stimuli associated with threat information and (b) facilitates behavioral avoidance of novel stimuli associated with threat information. This suggests a possible mechanism through which the BIS may promote the acquisition of animal fears.     

A Brief Scale for Measuring “Behavioral Inhibition to the Unfamiliar” in Children

The behavioral inhibition scale (BIS) is a brief rating scale for measuring behavioral inhibition in children. The present study examined the test–retest stability of the BIS in a sample of 7–12-year-olds consisting of inhibited and non-inhibited children (N = 83). Results demonstrated that the BIS scores were fairly stable over a 2-year period, with a test–retest correlation of .77. Further, the BIS scores of inhibited children significantly increased over the 2-year period, whereas those of the non-inhibited comparison group significantly decreased. Finally, the BIS was in a theoretically meaningful way associated with temperamental traits as measured by the Rothbart scales. Altogether, these results provide support for the reliability and validity of the BIS.     

The Role Behavioral of Activation and Inhibition in Explaining Adolescents’ Game Use and Game Engagement Levels

According to Gray’s reinforcement sensitivity theory, variations in the functioning of two neuropsychological systems, the behavioral approach (BAS) and inhibition (BIS) system, can result in individual differences in personality. Several studies have looked at associations between personality and media use but media research integrating BAS and BIS is scarce. The current cross-sectional survey study (n = 1016) representative for Belgian adolescents investigated associations between BAS and BIS and game use and game engagement in adolescents. Results showed that BAS was positively associated with playing both violent and nonviolent games. BIS was negatively associated with violent game use while it was positively associated with nonviolent games. Also, BAS was positively associated with game engagement. No association was found between BIS and game engagement. Game engagement was shown to mediate the relationship between BAS and playing both violent and nonviolent games. Based on these results, the present study argues that integrating the reinforcement sensitivity theory in media research makes an important contribution to the understanding of the link between personality and game engagement and game use.     

Neuroticism,BIS, and reactivity to discrete negative mood inductions

Research has established relationships between the personality dimensions of neuroticism and BIS and broad negative emotional reactivity. However, few researchers have examined the relationships among neuroticism, BIS, and discrete negative emotional reactivities. The present study examined whether individuals scoring high on neuroticism and BIS were more reactive across four discrete negative mood inductions, relative to those scoring low on these traits. Participants (n = 166) completed personality questionnaires, measures of current mood, viewed a specific mood-inducing film clip (sadness, anger, fear or disgust) and then reported their moods a second time. Results revealed that neuroticism/BIS was associated with high reactivity to the fear and sadness inductions. Neuroticism/BIS did not predict anger or disgust reactivity, but neuroticism/BIS and extraversion/BAS interacted in predicting anger. Although further research is needed to extend generalizability, it appears that neuroticism and BIS predict negative emotional reactivity broadly, but not ubiquitously.     

Parent and Teacher Ratings of Temperamental Disposition to Social Anxiety: The BIS 3–6

Behavioral inhibition (BI) discourages children from interacting, predisposing them to isolation, social anxiety, and depression. We have created the Behavioral Inhibition Scale for Children Aged 3 to 6 (BIS 3–6) to detect this trait early. Parents and teachers of 365 preschoolers completed different versions of the BIS 3–6 and provided measures of psychopathology. Both versions are structured into 1 factor that explains over 40% of total variability and displays excellent internal consistency (α = .95). The moderate correlations with measures of internalizing symptoms (r = .50) and nonexistent correlations with externalizing measures suggest adequate convergent and discriminant validity. A new scoring system is proposed.     

Evidence for a general factor of behavioral activation system sensitivity

Individual differences in one’s propensity to engage the behavioral activation system (BAS) and behavioral inhibition system (BIS) have primarily been studied with Caver and White’s (1994) BIS/BAS scale. Whereas, Carver and White identified the BIS as a unidimensional scale, they identified three separable BAS group factors - drive, fun seeking, and reward responsiveness -which Carver urged against combining into a BAS total score. Despite this, a BAS total score has been used extensively although researchers have yet to test whether a BAS general factor exists and, if so, whether a BAS total score can be interpreted as primarily being a measure of the general factor. The current study observed that the best fitting BAS factor model of those we tested was a hierarchical model with three group facets and a general factor. This model was largely invariant across both sex and race/ethnicity. We show, for the first time, that a general factor accounts for the majority of the variance in BAS total scores. Due to the superior fit of the hierarchical model and variance accounted for by the general factor, we conclude that researchers are psychometrically justified in using a BAS total score.     

Parent and teacher ratings of temperamental disposition to social anxiety: the BIS 3-6

Behavioral inhibition (BI) discourages children from interacting, predisposing them to isolation, social anxiety, and depression. We have created the Behavioral Inhibition Scale for Children Aged 3 to 6 (BIS 3-6) to detect this trait early. Parents and teachers of 365 preschoolers completed different versions of the BIS 3-6 and provided measures of psychopathology. Both versions are structured into 1 factor that explains over 40% of total variability and displays excellent internal consistency (α = .95). The moderate correlations with measures of internalizing symptoms (r = .50) and nonexistent correlations with externalizing measures suggest adequate convergent and discriminant validity. A new scoring system is proposed.     

The effects of the behavioral inhibition and activation systems on social inclusion and exclusion

Human beings have a strong fundamental need to form and maintain relationships. Social exclusion therefore evokes social pain in excluded individuals, whereas social inclusion evokes pleasure in those individuals who are included. The present study used near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) to investigate whether individual differences in personality, specifically differences in behavioral inhibition and activation system (BIS and BAS) functioning, affect the experiences of social pleasure and pain. Thirty-seven undergraduates participated in an NIRS session that involved both social rejection and inclusion during an online ball-tossing game. People with greater BIS sensitivity experienced more social pain during social exclusion, while people with greater BAS sensitivity reported more social pleasure during social inclusion. BIS sensitivity was negatively correlated with ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC) activity during social exclusion. Finally, VLPFC activity partially mediated the relationship between BIS sensitivity and social pain experienced during social exclusion.     

Suicidal Thinking and Perfectionism: The Role of Goal Adjustment and Behavioral Inhibition/Activation Systems (BIS/BAS)

The current study investigated the associations among perfectionism, goal adjustment, behavioral activation sensitivity (BAS), behavioral inhibition sensitivity (BIS), and suicidal thinking. Participants (n = 255) completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, the BIS/BAS scale, the Goal Adjustment scale, and a measure of suicidal thinking. The findings showed that socially prescribed perfectionism was the only perfectionism dimension associated with suicidal thinking. Goal reengagement (but not goal disengagement) is an important construct in the suicidal process. A series of hierarchical regression analyses showed that goal reengagement moderates and mediates the effect of socially prescribed perfectionism on suicidal thinking. BIS was also associated with suicidal behavior but its effect was mediated via socially prescribed perfectionism. The theoretical and treatment implications of the relationships between socially prescribed perfectionism, goal reengagement, and suicidal thinking and between BIS, socially prescribed perfectionism, and suicidal thinking are discussed. Future research is required to determine whether these relationships are predictive of suicidal thinking and behavior over time.     

Impulsivity partially mediates the relationship between BIS/BAS and risky health behaviors

Several theorists have suggested that impulsivity can be understood as a joint function of the behavioral approach (BAS) and behavioral inhibition systems (BIS). After resolving questions concerning the measurement of impulsivity and BAS, this study examined the relationships among risky health behaviors, impulsivity, BIS, and BAS. Utilizing a sample of undergraduates (N = 904), a structural model was tested in which BAS and BIS predicted impulsivity, which, in turn, predicted risky behavior. Fit indices were acceptable, but not good. A modified version of the model showed a statistically significant negative relationship between BAS and risky behaviors. However, the fit indices were not unequivocally supportive of the need to include that path. Overall, the data suggest that impulsivity is the joint result of countervailing motivational forces and that it partially or fully mediates the influence of BIS and BAS on risky health behavior.     

The effects of behavioral inhibition/approach system as predictors of Internet addiction in adolescents

This study aimed to determine how the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) and the Behavioral Approach System (BAS) affect Internet addiction in adolescents. Two hundred and eleven high school students participated in this study and completed the Young’s Internet Addiction Test (IAT), BIS/BAS scales, and several self-administered questionnaires about depression, anxiety, and impulsivity. Hierarchical regressions showed that BIS and BAS × BIS emerged as significant predictors of IAT; however, only BAS-fun seeking subscale predicted IAT among BAS related subscales. In further analyses, the BAS-fun seeking subscale was mediated by impulsivity and anxiety, and BIS was mediated by anxiety and depression. The current findings imply that BIS and BAS interdependently influence vulnerability to Internet addiction through both shared (anxiety) and different (depression and impulsivity, respectively) pathways.     

Individual differences in the Behavioral Inhibition System are associated with orbitofrontal cortex and precuneus gray matter volume

The Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) is described in Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory as a hypothetical construct that mediates anxiety in animals and humans. The neuroanatomical correlates of this system are not fully clear, although they are known to involve the amygdala, the septohippocampal system, and the prefrontal cortex. Previous neuroimaging research has related individual differences in BIS with regional volume and functional variations in the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampal formation. The aim of the present work was to study BIS-related individual differences and their relationship with brain regional volume. BIS sensitivity was assessed through the BIS/BAS questionnaire in a sample of male participants (N = 114), and the scores were correlated with brain regional volume in a voxel-based morphometry analysis. The results show a negative correlation between the BIS and the volume of the right and medial orbitofrontal cortices and the precuneus. Our results and previous findings suggest that individual differences in anxiety-related personality traits and their related psychopathology may be associated with reduced brain volume in certain structures relating to emotional control (i.e., the orbitofrontal cortex) and self-consciousness (i.e., the precuneus), as shown by our results.     

Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity Model and Child Psychopathology: Laboratory and Questionnaire Assessment of the BAS and BIS

The Behavioral Approach System (BAS) and Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) are widely studied components of Gray's sensitivity to reinforcement model. There is growing interest in integrating the BAS and BIS into models of risk for psychopathology, however, few measures assess BAS and BIS functioning in children. We adapted a questionnaire measure and reaction time task from adult studies to assess the BAS and BIS in a sample of 9-12 year olds (N = 63; 42% female). A continuous performance task was also administered to assess physiological correlates of the BAS and BIS. Factor analysis supported 3 subdimensions of the BAS (Drive, Reward Responsivity, and Impulsivity/Fun seeking), and one dimension of the BIS (sensitivity to punishment). Results supported the utility of the questionnaire measures and reaction time task as assessments of BAS and BIS functioning. Moreover, these measures were associated with internalizing and externalizing problem behavior as expected. High levels of impulsivity/fun seeking, but not drive or reward responsivity, were associated with high levels of externalizing problems, whereas high levels of sensitivity to punishment were associated with high levels of internalizing behavior problems. The relation between physiological indices and caregiver reports of the BAS, BIS, and problem behavior were complex and not consistent with expectation.