One-year retention of general and sequence-specific skills in a probabilistic,serial reaction time task

Procedural skills such as riding a bicycle and playing a musical instrument play a central role in daily life. Such skills are learned gradually and are retained throughout life. The present study investigated 1-year retention of procedural skill in a version of the widely used serial reaction time task (SRTT) in young and older motor-skill experts and older controls in two experiments. The young experts were college-age piano and action video-game players, and the older experts were piano players. Previous studies have reported sequence-specific skill retention in the SRTT as long as 2 weeks but not at 1 year. Results indicated that both young and older experts and older non-experts revealed sequence-specific skill retention after 1 year with some evidence that general motor skill was retained as well. These findings are consistent with theoretical accounts of procedural skill learning such as the procedural reinstatement theory as well as with previous studies of retention of other motor skills.     

Assessment of fine motor skill in musicians and nonmusicians: differences in timing versus sequence accuracy in a bimanual fingering task

While professional musicians are generally considered to possess better control of finger movements than nonmusicians, relatively few reports have experimentally addressed the nature of this discrepancy in fine motor skills. For example, it is unknown whether musicians perform with greater skill than control subjects in all aspects of different types of fine motor activities. More specifically, it is not known whether musicians perform better than control subjects on a fine motor task that is similar, but not identical, to the playing of their primary instrument. The purpose of this study was to examine the accuracy of finger placement and accuracy of timing in professional musicians and nonmusicians using a simple, rhythmical, bilateral fingering pattern and the technology that allowed separate assessment of these two parameters. Professional musicians (other than pianists) and nonmusicians were given identical, detailed and explicit instructions but not allowed physically to practice the finger pattern. After verbally repeating the correct pattern for the investigator, subjects performed the task on an electric keyboard with both hands simultaneously. Each subject's performance was then converted to a numerical score. While musicians clearly demonstrated better accuracy in timing, no significant difference was found between the groups in their finger placement scores. These findings were not correlated with subjects' age, sex, limb dominance, or primary instrument (for the professional musicians). This study indicates that professional musicians perform better in timing accuracy but not spatial accuracy while executing a simple, novel, bimanual motor sequence.     

Variability effects on retention of a motor skill in elementary school children.

Variability effects on learning, retention, and transfer of motor skills have been a main issue for scientists involved in laboratory and field research. Variable practice is intended as parameter variations of a generalized motor program as well as rehearsal of different motor programs. Although the benefits deriving from variable practice on motor skill retention appear quite robust in laboratory settings, field investigations have produced mixed results. Hence, the aim of this study was to examine the effects of different variable schedules on the retention of a complex min tor skill in a physical education setting. 61 elementary school children were assigned Blocked/Nonvariable, Blocked/Variable, Serial/Nonvariable, or Serial/Variable schedules, and practiced two tasks (throwing and hurdle running) and a complex skill (jumping) across 14 lessons. Improved performance in the complex skill was found after practice, with the Serial/Nonvariable group outperforming all other groups. Therefore. the rehearsal of different motor programs was beneficial for jumping skill retention, whereas parameter variation was not.     

Differences in cortical activity related to motor planning between experienced guitarists and non-musicians during guitar playing

The influence of motor skill learning on movement-related brain activity was investigated using electroencephalography. Previous research has indicated that experienced performers display movement-related cortical potentials (MRCPs) of smaller amplitude and later onset compared to novices. Unfortunately, previous studies have lacked ecological validity with experimenters recording the MRCP prior to simple motor tasks and applying the results to more complex motor skills. This study replicated previous research using an ecologically valid motor skill; recording the MRCP from a group of experienced guitarists and a control group of non-musicians while they played a simple scale on the guitar. Results indicated no difference between groups in early motor planning. In contrast, the later, negative slope and motor potential components were of smaller amplitude and the negative slope began later in the experienced guitarists. The data may indicate that, for experienced guitarists, a reduced level of effort is required during the motor preparation phase of the task. These findings have implications for musical instrument learning as well as motor skill acquisition in general.     

Effect of a motor skill-based intervention in the relationship of individual and contextual factors in children with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder from low-income families

Contextual opportunities facilitate skill acquisition, and the interaction between individual and contextual factors is fundamental to enhancing health and social parameters in children with DCD. This study examined (1) the influence of Mastery Motivational Climate (MMC) and Exercise Play Climate (EPC) interventions on motor performance, physical activity, self-perceptions, BMI, engagement in the lessons, playtime, and screen time of children without and with DCD, (2) the relationship between motor performance, self-perceptions, BMI, engagement in the physical education lessons, playtime, and screen factors in the children's physical activity levels in the lessons (PA) pre-and post-test. Children (N = 255, 98 children with Developmental Coordination Disorder - DCD; 157 children without DCD) were randomly assigned to MMC and EPC. Physical Activity levels in the lessons, motor performance, self-perceptions of physical competence, body mass indexes, appropriate motor engagement with success in the lessons, and active play and screen time were assessed. Regarding intervention impact, from pre-to post-tests, the results showed increases (1) PA in children with DCD in the EPC group and without DCD in the MMC group; (2) locomotor and ball skills for children with DCD in both climates; (3) locomotor and ball skills for children without DCD in the MMC group; (4) self-perceptions of competence for children with DCD in the MMC group; and (5) engagement with success for all children in both climates. A slight decrease in BMI for children with DCD in both climates was found. Regarding the associations, at post-test, engagement with success explained (1) PA levels for children with DCD in the MMC group and children without DCD in the EPC group; (2) active playtime explained PA for children with DCD in the EPC group; (3) ball skills explained PA for children without DCD in the MMC group. The intervention promoted overall increases in motor performance and children’s engagement in the lesson. The intervention strengthened the role of ball skills performance, engagement with success, and active play; however, these relationships were different across groups.     

A component analysis of behavioral skills training with volunteers teaching motor skills to individuals with developmental disabilities

This study included a component analysis of behavioral skills training (BST) for teaching volunteers how to use this training method to support individuals with developmental disabilities in a physical education program. In an alternating treatment design embedded within a multiple baseline design across five participants, the number of BST steps that volunteers completed correctly while teaching four motor skills was measured. In the initial training phase, each motor skill was taught to volunteers using a specific component of BST (i.e., instructions, modeling, rehearsal, or feedback). In subsequent training phases, BST components were combined to teach the volunteers the motor skills for which they did not reach a predetermined mastery criterion (a score of four correct responses across two consecutive trials). Maintenance was assessed. Results indicated that individual components of BST alone were sufficient for volunteers to meet the mastery criterion; however, the full BST framework was necessary for skill maintenance. Strengths, limitations, and recommendations for future research are discussed.     

The role of instruction preference in analogy learning: Brain activity and motor performance

This study examined the role of verbal instruction preference when learning motor skills by analogy. During skill learning, analogies are a useful tool for providing knowledge about how to move. It has been argued that analogy instructions reduce reliance on verbal information processes during motor planning, compared to traditional forms of instruction (i.e., explicit rules about how to move). This may be reflected by reduced verbal activity in the brain, measured by EEG alpha power at the temporal region, as well as reduced verbal-motor cross-communication (EEG T7-Fz coherence) during the preparation phase of a movement. Preference for using verbal or visual instructions is likely to influence the efficacy of analogy instructions. This study investigated whether preference for verbal instructions was related to a) changes in performance and b) changes in verbal-cognitive information processing during performance of an adapted basketball task after instruction by analogy. Basketball novices with a high preference for verbal instructions (n = 15) showed significantly decreased activation of verbal brain regions when they used the analogy (high-alpha power), but their performance remained stable. Novices with a low preference for verbal instructions (n = 13) did not show a significant decrease in activation of verbal regions, and their performance deteriorated significantly after introduction of the analogy instruction. It is likely that both cognitive and performance changes after analogy instruction depend on personal aspects of information processing, such as verbal preference.     

Whole-body kinematics and coordination in a complex dance sequence: Differences across skill levels

This study examined differences across skill levels in the kinematics of a complex, whole-body, asymmetrical, cyclical dance sequence, the ‘Alternate Basic’ in Cha-Cha-Cha, to determine whether observed differences were consistent with Bernstein's (1967) model of development of coordination. Bernstein proposed that with novel motor skills, beginners move their bodies rigidly and spastically, freezing kinematic degrees of freedom (DOF) to constrain the motor system. As the skill becomes practised, the DOF unfreeze and movements become more dynamic, allowing the integration of reactional elements (passive forces, moments, etc.) and organisation of more complex coordinative structures. Twenty-nine dancers - beginners (n = 10), intermediates (n = 10), experts (n = 9) - performed 12 cycles of the dance sequence (total duration ~60 s). Three-dimensional kinematic data from 36 joint angles were collected using a 14-camera infrared motion capture system. Most joints displayed increased amplitude and speed of movement, especially early in skill progression (beginner-intermediate stage), with no evidence of any decreases, showing that unfreezing occurred around the general movement pattern early. Speed of movement continued to increase later (intermediate-expert stage), as well as further unfreezing of the upper limbs. Changes to intra-limb couplings were limited, comprising some early reductions in coupling strength. Principal component analyses (PCA) showed that the structure of movement became more organised with increased skill. There was an early reduction in the number of coordinative structures, while later, movement was integrated more into the first coordinative structure. As predicted by Bernstein's coordination development model, therefore, the kinematic DOF unfroze as skill level progressed, leading to increased organisation of coordinative structures. The results of this study support the importance of a whole-body perspective in studies of coordination, with incorporation of kinetic variables in future research in order to examine the role that reactional elements play in motor skill development.     

Stereotype threat affects the learning of sport motor skills

Studies have shown that stereotypical conditions can affect the performance of academic as well as motor skills (for a review see Chalabaev, Sarrazin, Fontayne, Boiché, & Clément-Guillotin, 2013). The objective of the present study was to investigate the influence of stereotype threat on the learning of a sport skill in women. Participants practiced 15 trials of a soccer dribbling task, and their learning was observed in immediate and delayed retention tests. Before practice, participants were divided into two groups which received instructions introducing the task as either involving athletic speed/power capacities, where women normally perform worse than men (stereotypical condition – ST), or as involving agility/coordination capacities, where women normally can perform similarly than men (nullified-stereotype condition – NST). They also filled out questionnaires measuring self-efficacy. Participants of the ST group showed significant lower motor performance and learning, as well as lower self-efficacy levels, than the NST group. The findings provide evidence that the learning of sport skills can be affected by stereotypical conditions. They add to the growing evidence of the impact of social-cognitive and affective factors on motor skill learning.     

THE USE OF IMPOSED AND SELF-SELECTED TRAINING PACKAGES TO ESTABLISH CLASSROOM TEACHING SKILLS1

Although much is known about techniques for teaching elementary pupils in the classroom, no procedures have been consistently effective in training teachers to use these techniques. In the present study, six teacher trainees were observed individually and trained sequentially to use a variety of teaching skills: praise for academic responses, praise for appropriate classroom behavior, correction procedures for incorrect academic responses, and token fines. These skills were examined under four conditions: (1) baseline sessions were taught by the trainees before any instructions on the use of the teaching skills. (2) Instruction sessions were taught by the trainees after they were given instructions describing the use of several teaching skills. (3) During each Imposed-Package session, the trainees received modelling, verbal feedback, graphic feedback, and grade and quiz contingencies on their use of a particular teaching skill. (4) During each Self-Selected Package session, a grade contingency was in effect with the trainees choosing the components (modelling, verbal feedback, graphic feedback, quiz contingency) they wanted included in their training package for a particular skill. The effects of instructions were quite varied. Large increases on three of the four skills occurred with one trainee; almost no changes occurred with another trainee; and changes with the remaining four trainees fell within these extremes. The Imposed and Self-Selected Packages reliably increased the use of teaching skills, including those skills for which instructions had not been effective. The Self-Selected Package was considered to be as effective as the Imposed Package, since the time required for training a teaching skill varied from two to nine sessions with both packages. Under the Self-Selected Package, the trainees chose from modelling, verbal feedback, and graphic feedback, but none chose the quiz contingency. Questionnaire data collected after training showed that all six trainees preferred the Self-Selected Package to the Imposed Package. The effectiveness of the Self-Selected Package, together with the trainees' preference for it, suggests that it may be desirable for teacher training programs to specify the teaching skills, arrange a contingency for performance, and allow trainees to choose which additional components are to be used in each training session.     

How Do Creative Experts Practice New Skills? Exploratory Practice in Breakdancers

How do expert performers practice as they develop creatively? This study investigated the processes involved in the practice of new skills by expert breakdancers. A great deal of evidence supports the theory of “deliberate practice” (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch‐Römer, 1993, Psychological Review, 100, 363) in skill acquisition; however, expert creative performers may emphasize other forms of practice for skill development. Four case studies collected through fieldwork and laboratory observation were analyzed to evaluate expert dancers’ practice processes as they developed proficiency in new, specific skills. We focused on three aspects of learning: the degree of skill acquisition, the content of skills included in practice, and dancers’ stated purposes for practicing. The results showed that dancers’ practice improved skills (as suggested by deliberate practice) and engaged the exploration of new, original skills, along with coordinating skills within performance. In their practice, these dance experts went beyond deliberative practice to highly exploratory processes for skill development.     

Movement competence: Association with physical self-efficacy and physical activity

BackgroundThe purpose of this paper was to investigate whether physical self-efficacy mediates the relationship between movement competence (fundamental movement skills and perceived movement skill competence) and physical activity in children.MethodsA purposive sample of 860 children (47.7% female, 10.9 ± 1.16 years) were recruited and completed assessments for physical self-efficacy (Physical Activity Self-Efficacy Scale), fundamental movement skills (Test of Gross Motor Development-3), perceived movement skill competence (Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence), and physical activity (PACE+). A bootstrap mediation analysis was employed using movement competence as the predictor variable and physical activity as the outcome variable, and physical self-efficacy as the potential mediator of the relationship.ResultsThe results from a bootstrap mediation analysis yielded a statistically significant mediation effect for physical self-efficacy, with the entire model explaining approximately 10.3% of the variance of physical activity. The indirect effect of perceived movement skill competence through physical self-efficacy was significantly larger than the indirect effect of fundamental movement skills through physical self-efficacy. Neither sex nor age acted as a covariate.ConclusionMovement competence (fundamental movement skills and perceived movement skill competence) acts as a source of information for children's physical self-efficacy, moreover physical self-efficacy mediates the movement competence – PA relationship. Findings highlight the need for interventions to target and improve movement competence as a whole for children.     

A prescriptive paradigm for sequencing instruction in physical education

Recent advances in the understanding of the neurological basis of motor control have made possible an explanation of motor skill acquisition in terms of the notion of programs of muscle synergies. The progressive development of an individual's capacity to control these synergies may be presented as a kind of hierarchical organization of processing levels based upon changes in the neurological location of motor control and the ability of the individual to make adjustments in the programs. This paper is an attempt to apply this information about the processing levels of motor control to the problem of the identification of a paradigm to assist practitioners in the design of sequences of motor skill learning experiences. Such a paradigm is proposed as a reformulation of Jewett's Movement Process Category System, a model originally created for use in curriculum decision-making.The proposed reformulation identifies three subphases of adaptive skill acquisition: skill construction, where a program of synergies is first automated; skill stabilization, where that program is then schematized; and skill differentiation, where that program is finally modularized. Within each of the subphases, processing levels are defined to enable the practitioner to give directions and design learning environments which will focus upon the students' gaining progressive control of the program of synergies selected for acquisition. Comments made throughout this presentation are intended to bridge the gap between motor control research and the teaching of skills, as well as encourage researchers in the motor learning/motor development areas to consider the notion of programs of muscle synergies as the fundamental explanatory unit for motor skill acquisition.     

Whole-body angular momentum in a complex dance sequence: Differences across skill levels

Due to the redundant degrees of freedom (DOF) and nonlinearity of reactional kinetic elements within the human motor apparatus, controlling the complex dynamics of the human musculoskeletal system presents considerable difficulties. Based on this challenge, Bernstein (1967) viewed skill development as the process whereby the central nervous system (CNS) gains mastery of kinematic DOF and kinetic reactional elements (passive forces, moments etc.), with the highest level of skill characterised by optimal exploitation of reactional elements in the achievement of movement goals. A previous kinematic investigation into coordination differences in a complex multidirectional dance sequence demonstrated that general unfreezing of kinematic DOF occurred as dance skill progressed (Chang et al., submitted for publication). To gain insight into the role of angular reactional elements in skill, the present kinetic study investigated angular momentum and associated variables across three skill levels (beginners, intermediates, experts) within this same complex dance sequence. The results showed that the angular momenta of segments and accompanying angular reactional elements generally increased with skill level. More specifically, the findings suggested that while improvements in movement economy from cancellation of angular momentum between body segments occur early in skill progression, later in skill progression, experts utilise increased whole-body angular momentum. Although this is energetically expensive, it may enhance the aesthetic value of dance movements, and/or have mechanical advantages. Overall, the findings here provide support for Bernstein’s (1967) model of skill development. Future research should quantify the relations between energy expenditure, key biomechanical variables that reflect skill and dance aesthetics as perceived by audiences.     

Comparing the effects of conscious monitoring and conscious control on motor performance

We compared the effects of conscious monitoring and control on motor performance. Participants were instructed to adopt an internal or external focus of attention in different blocks of a darts task. For one group, the internal as well as external focus instructions emphasized monitoring. For another group, the instructions emphasized control in the two focus conditions. Furthermore, participants’ propensity for monitoring and control was gauged via two factors of the Movement Specific Reinvestment Scale (MSRS) (Masters, Eves, & Maxwell, 2005). These factors were Movement Self-Consciousness (MS-C) and Conscious Motor Processing (CMP), which measure propensity for conscious monitoring and control, respectively. Performance differences between the internal and external focus blocks were expressed as mean radial error (MRE). Results revealed a 3-way interaction between CMP, instruction type (monitoring versus control) and an order effect. Only in the conscious control-group, but not the conscious monitoring-group was there a 2-way interaction between CMP and order. In the conscious control-group, participants with high CMP scores showed worse performance in whichever focus block (internal or external) was presented last. There were no significant effects in the monitoring-group or of MS-C. These findings indicate that conscious control has a stronger effect on motor performance than conscious monitoring.     

Physical activity, motor development and self-concept: race and age differences

To investigate the effect of organized physical activity on the development of specific motor skills (body coordination and self-concept) of elementary age children, 344 children from the ethnic origins, black and white, were administered the Schilling Body Coordination Test and the Martinek-Zaichkowsky Self-concept Scale for Children. Motor development (body coordination) and self-concept scores were significantly higher for the group who participated in the physical activity program than for controls who did not. There was a linear trend in motor skill improvement, with Grades 2, 3, 4, and 5 showing significantly higher gains than Grade 1. The self-concept scores indicated a significant decline for Grades 3, 4, and 5. There were no significant differences between blacks and whites. A two-way interaction was found between grade and race in motor development, with blacks demonstrating lower mean scores than whites in Grade 2 but higher mean scores in Grade 5. Correlations between self-concept and motor development were non-significant.     

Motor acquisition rate in Brazilian infants

This study used the Alberta Infant Motor Scale (AIMS) with the aim of characterizing motor acquisition rate in 70 healthy 0–6‐month‐old Brazilian infants, as well as comparing both emergence (initial age) and establishment (final age) of each skill between the study sample and the AIMS normative data. New motor skills were continuously acquired from 0 to 6 months of age by the Brazilian infants, but their acquisition rate was non‐linear. When compared to the AIMS sample, Brazilian infants achieved lower percentiles, and their initial age to acquire skills requiring greater antigravity demand was higher. In contrast, Brazilian infants stopped exhibiting primitive patterns earlier, and their final age to acquire antigravity skills was lower. These differences in motor development are suggested to be a consequence of different parental practices and not necessarily indicate motor delay. Thus, the AIMS normative values should be adapted to cultural particularities so as to avoid that infants are misclassified as at risk for motor delay. Furthermore, an adequate assessment of motor development should consider not only the age at which a skill is emerged, but also the age at which such a skill is established in the infant's motor repertoire. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effects of fluent levels of Big 6 + 6 skill elements on functional motor skills with children with autism

Functional motor skills are often taught using chaining procedures. Research suggests that chaining procedures are not likely to be effective if they do not focus on the accuracy and speed of composite skill completion. Precision teaching (PT) research suggests that improved performance of a composite skill can be achieved if the performance speed of the component behaviors is increased. This study assessed the effects of repeated timed practice of component motor skills on speed and accuracy of composite skills and the effects of fluent component motor skills on the completion of daily living composite skills. Three children with autism participated. The results suggest that all participants were able to perform the component skills at their individual aims and performed most of the component skills at fluent levels as assessed by retention and endurance checks. Each participant increased the number of composite skill steps performed independently and one decreased the overall time to complete the composite skill. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The link between motor impairment level and motor imagery ability in children with developmental coordination disorder

The present study examined motor imagery ability in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Specifically, it explored whether children with varying degrees of motor impairment differed in their ability to perform motor imagery tasks. Fourty-two children scoring below the 15th percentile on the Movement ABC were split into two groups--DCD severe (DCD-S), scoring on or below the 5th percentile, and DCD mild (DCD-M), scoring from the 6th to 15th percentiles--and compared to 21 age matched controls. Participants performed two motor imagery tasks--hand (performed without and with specific imagery instructions) and whole-body rotation. The results demonstrated that children in the DCD-S group had a generalized motor imagery deficit in that they were less accurate across tasks than controls (and the DCD-M group on the hand task) and showed little benefit when given specific imagery instructions. The DCD-M group appeared capable of performing simpler motor imagery transformations, but were less successful as task complexity increased. Unlike the DCD-S group, the DCD-M group did show some benefit from specific imagery instructions with increases in accuracy on the hand task. These results suggest that a motor imagery deficit does exist in many children with DCD but that its presentation can vary--factors such as the individual child's level of motor impairment and task complexity appear to be linked to the profile of deficits observed, which could explain the inconsistent findings of previous studies. Although this study lends support to the theory that a deficit in internal modeling is an underlying problem for children with DCD, still more research is required to develop the theory further.     

Does learning a skill with the expectation of teaching it impair the skill’s execution under psychological pressure if the skill is learned with analogy instructions?

ObjectiveHaving learners practice a motor skill with the expectation of teaching it (versus an expectation of being tested on it) has been revealed to enhance skill learning. However, this improvement in skill performance is lost when the skill must be performed under psychological pressure due to ‘choking under pressure.’ The present study will investigate whether this choking effect is caused by an accrual of declarative knowledge during skill practice and could be prevented if a technique (analogy instructions) to minimize the accrual of declarative knowledge during practice is employed.DesignWe will use a 2 (Expectation: teach/test) x 2 (Instruction: analogy/explicit) x 2 (Posttest: high-pressure/low-pressure) mixed-factor design, with repeated measures on the last factor.MethodsA minimum of 148 participants will be quasi-randomly assigned (based on sex) to one of four groups. Participants in the teach/analogy and teach/explicit groups will practice golf putting with the expectation of teaching putting to another participant, and analogy instructions or explicit instructions, respectively. Participants in the test/analogy and test/explicit groups will practice golf putting with the expectation of being tested on their putting, and analogy instructions or explicit instructions, respectively. The next day all participants will complete low- and high-pressure putting posttests, with their putting accuracy serving as the dependent variable.