4～7岁儿童内在动机的追踪研究

把内在动机看作是一种特质,将其划分为物为定向内在动机和人为定向内在动机.对110名儿童进行了为期三年的追踪(从4岁到7岁).在儿童4岁和7岁时,实验室的自由游戏情境中对他们进行录像观察,编码他们的两种内在动机.由父母报告他们对儿童的控制.结果表明:(1)儿童从4岁到7岁,物为定向内在动机和人为定向内在动机均呈显著上升趋势.(2)在儿童4岁、7岁时,物为定向内在动机和人为定向内在动机均呈显著负相关.(3)在儿童4岁、7岁时,物为定向内在动机均显著高于人为定向内在动机.(4)在儿童4岁和7岁时,父母控制与儿童物为定向内在动机和人为定向内在动机均无显著相关.     

Intrinsic Motivation and Subjective Well-Being: The Unique Contribution of Intrinsic Religious Motivation

The purpose of this study was to determine if the frequently reported positive association between Intrinsic Religious Motivation (IRM) and Subjective Well-being (SWB) is explicable in terms of a more general intrinsic orientation to life that involves secular as well as religious domains. Measures of 3 distinct domains of intrinsic orientation (work, leisure, and religion) were administered to 161 college students along with 4 measures of SWB: satisfaction with life, purpose in life, self-efficacy, and negative affect. Four multiple regressions were performed, 1 to predict each measure of SWB, with the 3 intrinsic orientation scales, gender, and social desirability as the predictors in each regression. Intrinsic religiousness emerged as an independent predictor of satisfaction with life, purpose in life, and self-efficacy. Intrinsic religiousness appears to make a unique contribution to the prediction of SWB.     

内在动机及其前因变量

该文比较系统地介绍了目前国内外关于内在动机的概念和具体影响因素诸方面的研究进展,并对未来的研究发展方向进行了展望。内在动机主要是由于活动过程本身特性或个体内发性精神需要所引发的一种活动或工作动力。相关影响因素主要涉及个体需要兴趣情感因素、工作任务本身特性、个体成就目标设置、自我效能感、组织授权与交换以及外在激励方式等方面。未来研究的方向主要在于内在动机具体结构的深入探讨以及不同影响因素的中介变量、调节变量以及诸因素交互作用综合模型的建立等方面     

内部动机、外部动机与创造力的关系研究

本研究以277名文科三、四年级的大学生为被试,综合考察在故事、连线和命名任务下,内部动机,外部动机对创造力表现的影响。多变量方差分析发现,对于三个测验的共同部分,内部动机和外部动机的主效应均显著,但交互作用不显著。分别对每个任务进行方差分析发现,对于连线任务而言,内部动机和外部动机的主效应均显著;对于命名任务而言,外部动机的主效应显著,内部动机的主效应不显著;对于故事任务而言,内部动机和外部动机的主效应不显著。内部动机与外部动机之间在三个任务中均不存在显著的交互作用。多重回归分析发现,对于不同的任务,内部动机与外部动机的贡献显著不同。     

Intrinsic Motivation and norms about payment1

Several previous studies have shown that rewarding individuals for preforming an interesting task may have an inhibitory effect on tast satisfaction and persistence. In this experiment, an extrinsic reward decreased task satisfaction and persistence when a norm for no payment existed, but the inhibitory effect was not found when a norm for payment was associated with the task. This result is discussed in terms of the “means-ends” theoretical perspective developed by Calder and Straw (1975b) as well as other dcompeting explanations.     

Parenting and Children's Self-Control: Concurrent and Longitudinal Relations

The purpose of the current study was to examine the impact parenting has on the development of self-control, both before and after the general theory of crime suggests self-control is established. Using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, longitudinal data from mothers with children ages 8–9 and 12–13 were analyzed via structural equation modeling. Results demonstrated an overall environment of effective parenting is associated with (1) self-control before and after it is theoretically established and (2) parenting constructs outside the conceptualization of the theory. Further, the stability of self-control may matter more than parenting in the longitudinal development of self-control.     

Intrinsic Motivation,Organizational Justice,and Creativity

For employees to generate creative ideas that are not only original, but also useful to their company, they must interact with their workplace environment to determine organizational needs. Therefore, it is important to consider aspects of the individual as well as their environment when studying creativity. Intrinsic motivation, a predictor of individual level creativity, is associated with feelings of enjoyment and interest in the task at hand. To the extent that tasks are nested in an environment, intrinsically motivated individuals may perceive their environment more favorably than individuals who are not interested in the task. Specifically, such individuals may view the rewards (i.e., distributive justice), decision-making procedures (i.e., procedural justice), and their interpersonal treatment (i.e., interpersonal justice) in their work environment as more fair, due to the positive affect associated with intrinsic motivation. This study examines the relationships between intrinsic motivation, perceptions of organizational fairness, and creativity. Participants (n = 133) worked on a task in a laboratory setting and completed measures of intrinsic motivation and organizational justice. Findings were supportive that intrinsically motivated participants viewed their environment as fairer than participants that were uninterested in the task. Consequently, distributive and interpersonal justice were shown to significantly mediate the relationship between intrinsic motivation and creativity. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.     

The Effects of Visual Arts Pedagogies on Children's Intrinsic Motivation,Creativity, Artistic Skill,and Realistic Drawing Ability

This exploratory study compared the effects of two different teaching methods (teacher‐directed vs. choice‐based) on the overall art skills, realistic drawing ability, intrinsic motivation to pursue art, and creativity in art productions in children attending the two art programs. The sample consisted of 83 third graders who completed two art exercises and an intrinsic motivation questionnaire. Using the Consensual Assessment Technique, 20 undergraduate art majors rated each drawing on creativity, overall artistic skill, and realistic drawing ability; these scores showed high‐internal consistency and served as measures for art skills and creativity. Children from the teacher‐directed program scored significantly higher on art skill (M = 3.09) than the children from the choice‐based program (M = 2.53, p = .025). Children from the teacher‐directed program also performed better on realistic drawing (M = 3.7, p = .038) than the children from the choice‐based program (M = 2.99). Art teaching method did not predict intrinsic motivation or creativity. Further analyses showed significant correlations between intrinsic motivation scores and overall art skill (r = .376, p = .002) and realistic drawing skill (r = .335, p = .007). Participating in the teacher‐directed program is associated with higher levels of artistic skill and realistic drawing ability, which are correlated with increased intrinsic motivation.     

Effect of Reward Contingency on Intrinsic Motivation

The effects of type of task and type of reward contingency on intrinsic motivation for subsequent task performance were investigated. The sample consisted of 50 young Indian adults. The results showed a significantly greater amount of free choice time spent on a heuristic task rather than an algorithmic task. The verbal measures of intrinsic motivation yielded a significant effect of reward contingency with greater intrinsic motivation under performance-contingent reward, followed by task-contingent and no-reward conditions, respectively. The results support self-determination and competence processes as important mediators of intrinsic motivation.     

Intrinsic Motivation and Flow in Skateboarding: An Ethnographic Study

Intrinsic motivation was examined in a spontaneous and natural context by observing and interviewing skateboarders as they engaged in their sport. At the same time, the flow phenomenon and its relationship to intrinsic motivation was explored. Data were collected from twenty skateboarders. Results indicated being intrinsically motivated can be a rich, subjective experience characterized by a sense of freedom, euphoria and efficacy, challenge and satisfaction. Likewise, flow is a rich, subjective experience characterized by peak performance, heightened concentration, positive affect, and transcendence.     

Creativity as Mediator for Intrinsic Motivation and Sales Performance

Substantial theoretical and empirical literature indicates inconsistent performance implications of intrinsic motivation, suggesting the possibility of some explanatory mechanisms. However, little is known about the factors that might explain intrinsic motivation and sales force performance relation, particularly in highly competitive and demanding fast moving consumer goods (FMCG) marketplace requiring new and useful solutions. Creativity, being a critical yet underutilized weapon in sales force arsenal, has the potential to assume the role. Therefore, this study aims at developing and testing a theory-driven framework in linking intrinsic motivation to sales performance while using sales force creative performance as partial mediator. By employing structural equation modeling, the empirical validity of the proposed mediating model is evaluated against plausible moderating model in a sample of 688 frontline field salespersons of FMCG companies in Lahore (Pakistan). Findings indicated that sales force creative performance is nurtured by intrinsic motivation that, in turn, promotes sales performance. Practical implications of findings for sales force management and suggestions for future research are presented, too.     

Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Motivation in Schools: A Reconciliation

This article explores the nature of the relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in schools, and in particular examines critically the assertion that these processes are necessarily antagonistic. The weight of evidence suggests that rewards in the form of school grades and the focus of many students on doing well, gradewise, need not necessarily interfere with learning for its own sake. Educational implications of these findings are considered. One such implication is that focusing on students' interests can be a valuable motivational strategy.     

Perceived Threat,Controlling Parenting,and Children's Achievement Orientations

Maternal perceptions of threat in the environment were examined as concomitants of controlling (vs. autonomy supportive) parenting. Forty mothers and their third-grade children were videotaped while completing homework-like tasks together. Maternal controlling (vs. autonomy supportive) behavior was measured both attitudinally by questionnaire, and behaviorally by coding of the videotapes. Mothers reported on their perceptions of environmental threat (worry, instability, scarcity). Results indicated that perceptions of threat were positively associated with controlling behaviors exhibited during the tasks, and negatively associated with children's motivation. Further, the relation between perceived instability and children's motivation was mediated by controlling parenting. Controlling parenting is associated with parental perceptions of threat and is one pathway through which threat may be associated with children's achievement goals.     

国内父母教养方式与儿童发展研究

近年来,我国心理与教育研究者探讨了父母教养方式对儿童的认知、社会性情感及各种人格品质的发展的作用以及影响父母教养方式的因素,为儿童教育提供理论支持,并获得了中国文化背景下与西方不同的父母教养方式对儿童发展的特点。     

儿童行为抑制性与母亲教养行为：一项追踪研究

该研究采用纵向追踪的研究设计考察儿童的行为抑制性气质与母亲的教养行为之间的相互影响关系。104名儿童来自中国西部农村,第一次测查的平均年龄为45个月。通过录像观察编码的方式测量儿童的行为抑制性及母亲的教养行为,2年后对他们进行追踪。交叉滞后回归分析结果发现,儿童的行为抑制性对母亲的教养行为具有显著的预测作用,具体表现在对行为抑制性高的儿童,母亲在之后会表现出更多的接受性和指导性控制的教养行为。     

Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation to Use Computers in the Workplace1

Previous research indicates that perceived usefulness is a major determinant and predictor of intentions to use computers in the workplace. In contrast, the impact of enjoyment on usage intentions has not been examined. Two studies are reported concerning the relative effects of usefulness and enjoyment on intentions to use, and usage of, computers in the workplace. Usefulness had a strong effect on usage intentions in both Study 1, regarding word processing software (β=.68), and Study 2, regarding business graphics programs (β=.79). As hypothesized, enjoyment also had a significant effect on intentions in both studies, controlling for perceived usefulness (β=.16 and 0.15 for Studies 1 and 2, respectively). Study 1 found that intentions correlated 0.63 with system usage and that usefulness and enjoyment influenced usage behavior entirely indirectly through their effects on intentions. In both studies, a positive interaction between usefulness and enjoyment was observed. Together, usefulness and enjoyment explained 62% (Study 1) and 75% (Study 2) of the variance in usage intentions. Moreover, usefulness and enjoyment were found to mediate fully the effects on usage intentions of perceived output quality and perceived ease of use. As hypothesized, a measure of task importance moderated the effects of ease of use and output quality on usefulness but not on enjoyment. Several implications are drawn for how to design computer programs to be both more useful and more enjoyable in order to increase their acceptability among potential users.     

Age and Gender Differences in Children's Halloween Costumes

Based on data reported by Serbin and Sprafkin (1986), we predicted that the Halloween costumes of first and second graders would be less gender stereotyped than those of preschoolers and children in kindergarten. Children from one public elementary school and two preschools (N = 178) were individually interviewed on Halloween. Children were asked which character they were, who they wanted to be next year, and their age. The resulting 113 different costumes were then rated by college students for degree of masculinity, femininity, and scariness. In addition to main effects of gender and grade, two of four predicted interactions were significant. Older boys tended to prefer less masculine and more feminine costumes than younger boys, and older girls tended to prefer more masculine and less feminine costumes than younger girls.     

Mothers' Parenting and Young Economically Disadvantaged Children's Relational and Overt Bullying

We examined links between mothers' parenting and children's relational bullying and overt bullying in a sample of children attending a Head Start program. Mothers completed surveys and face-to-face interviews. Head Start teachers completed assessments on children. Results indicated that a small percentage of children in the sample was rated by teachers as engaging in relational bullying “frequently to almost always,” and slightly over half of the sample was rated by teachers as engaging in relational bullying “occasionally to about half of the time.” Similar results were found for the frequency with which children engaged in overt physical bullying. Regarding mothers' parenting, maternal empathy was most strongly correlated with both children's relational bullying and overt physical bullying. In addition, mothers' inappropriate developmental expectations for children and mothers' need to exert power over children rather than grant them independence were related to children's relational bullying. A composite variable for mothering predicted 11% of the variance in children's relational bullying. No gender differences were found for children's relational bullying and children's overt bullying.     

内部动机与外部动机的关系

内部动机与外部动机的关系问题在20世纪90年代重新成为动机研究的热点。该文综述了内部动机与外部动机关系的实验研究与理论研究状况。认为实验研究经历了外部动机削弱内部动机、外部动机与内部动机共存、外部动机能够对内部动机产生促进作用三个阶段,研究者的心理学立场是造成分歧结果出现的重要原因;不同的理论模式各有所长,尤其是自我决定理论的新进展“有机辨证元理论”中关于需要的阐述是近期动机研究的亮点,在更高层次上实现了对内部动机与外部动机关系的整合。并提出探讨内部动机与外部动机具体成分之间的关系,检验特质状态与情境状态中二者的相互作用,及心理需要对情境与动机的中介机制应当成为未来研究的方向     

Exploring the Effects of Ostracism on Performance and Intrinsic Motivation

Two experiments investigated the effects of ostracism on performance and intrinsic motivation. Participants were either included or ostracized via an online ball-tossing game and then completed two trials of an interesting word-search task. Later, they engaged in a free-choice trial designed to assess their intrinsic motivation for the word-search task. Results indicated that ostracized participants performed more poorly and experienced lower positive mood and relatedness than included participants. Although no direct effects of ostracism on intrinsic motivation were found, in both studies ostracism indirectly affected intrinsic motivation through positive mood, such that ostracism led to poorer mood and, in turn, lower intrinsic motivation. Implications for future research on ostracism in organizations are discussed.