Audiotactile multisensory interactions in human information processing

Abstract:  The last few years has seen a very rapid growth of interest in how signals from different sensory modalities are integrated in the brain to form the unified percepts that fill our daily lives. Research on multisensory interactions between vision, touch, and proprioception has revealed the existence of multisensory spatial representations that code the location of external events relative to our own bodies. In this review, we highlight recent converging evidence from both human and animal studies that has revealed that spatially-modulated multisensory interactions also occur between hearing and touch, especially in the space immediately surrounding the head. These spatial audiotactile interactions for stimuli presented close to the head can affect not only the spatial aspects of perception, but also various other non-spatial aspects of audiotactile information processing. Finally, we highlight some of the most important questions for future research in this area.     

Folded additive structures: A nonpolynomial model of some factorial interactions

A nonpolynomial measurement model for representing nonadditive compositions of stimulus dimensions is presented. This representation, which is referred to as a folded additive structure, permits the decomposition of a behavioral ordering into independent factors in some of the cases where the behavior itself does not directly reflect this independence. Psychologically, this representation corresponds to a model of behavior which assumes that (1) the effect stimulus attributes have on behavior is mediated by a single relevent psychological dimension, (2) the behavioral ordering is single-peaked over this mediating dimension and (3) the mediating dimension has a conjoint additive ordering over a set of relevent stimulus dimensions. Necessary and sufficient tests for folded additive structures are given. In addition, five psychological theories which make these assumptions are discussed.     

Construct validity of four basic Vocational Interest factors

To find evidence of the generalizability of four interest factors established for tests within the Roe-Holland framework, factor scores derived from a Vocational Interest Inventory grounded in Roe's system were correlated with the empirically based Strong-Campbell Occupational scale scores. For this sample of 300 counseling clients, a majority of the hypothesized relations were found, and arranging the occupations along these bipolar dimensions both sharpened the definitions of the factors and provided an additional interpretive aid for counseling.     

Attention and the multiple stages of multisensory integration: A review of audiovisual studies

Multisensory integration and crossmodal attention have a large impact on how we perceive the world. Therefore, it is important to know under what circumstances these processes take place and how they affect our performance. So far, no consensus has been reached on whether multisensory integration and crossmodal attention operate independently and whether they represent truly automatic processes. This review describes the constraints under which multisensory integration and crossmodal attention occur and in what brain areas these processes take place. Some studies suggest that multisensory integration and crossmodal attention take place in higher heteromodal brain areas, while others show the involvement of early sensory specific areas. Additionally, the current literature suggests that multisensory integration and attention interact depending on what processing level integration takes place. To shed light on this issue, different frameworks regarding the level at which multisensory interactions takes place are discussed. Finally, this review focuses on the question whether audiovisual interactions and crossmodal attention in particular are automatic processes. Recent studies suggest that this is not always the case. Overall, this review provides evidence for a parallel processing framework suggesting that both multisensory integration and attentional processes take place and can interact at multiple stages in the brain.     

A model of the neural mechanisms underlying multisensory integration in the superior colliculus

Much of the information about multisensory integration is derived from studies of the cat superior colliculus (SC), a midbrain structure involved in orientation behaviors. This integration is apparent in the enhanced responses of SC neurons to cross-modal stimuli, responses that exceed those to any of the modality-specific component stimuli. The simplest model of multisensory integration is one in which the SC neuron simply sums its various sensory inputs. However, a number of empirical findings reveal the inadequacy of such a model; for example, the finding that deactivation of cortico-collicular inputs eliminates the enhanced response to a cross-modal stimulus without eliminating responses to the modality-specific component stimuli. These and other empirical findings inform a computational model that accounts for all of the most fundamental aspects of SC multisensory integration. The model is presented in two forms: an algebraic form that conveys the essential insights, and a compartmental form that represents the neuronal computations in a more biologically realistic way.     

Evidence of validity for the Skill Scale scores of the Campbell Interest and Skill Survey

The purpose of the current study was to investigate the evidence of validity of the Skill Scale scores on the Campbell Interest and Skill Survey (CISS). In a sample of 221 college students, analyses between the CISS Skill Scale scores and the CISS Interest Scale, the Strong Interest Inventory, and selfreported MAEQ abilities scores were conducted. Results provided evidence of convergent and discriminate validity of the Skill Scale scores. Furthermore, Skill Scale scores were found to be predictive of declared college major above chance levels. Conclusions from the results support the use of the CISS Skill Scales in counseling settings. Further investigation of the content being measured by the Skill Scales and their use in career interventions is recommended.     

Evidence of construct validity of the interest scales on the Campbell Interest and Skill Survey

This study explored evidence of the construct validity of the interest scales on the Campbell Interest and Skill Survey (CISS; Campbell, Hyne, & Nilsen, 1992) by testing evidence for convergent validity with the Strong Interest Inventory (SII; Hansen & Campbell, 1985). Two hypotheses were formulated. First, matching CISS and SII scales were expected to be more positively correlated compared to non-matching scales. Second, Holland's hexagonal calculus assumption (Holland, 1973) was expected to emerge in the pattern of intercorrelations among CISS and SII scales. These hypotheses were tested using correlational and factor analyses. Results supported the hypotheses and demonstrated evidence of good convergent and construct validity for scores on the CISS interest scales. Implications for the use of the CISS in counseling and for research on Holland's theory are discussed, and directions for future research are presented.     

The validity of the Holland and Basic Interest scales of the Strong Vocational Interest Blank: Leisure activities versus occupational membership as criteria

This study compared leisure activities with occupational membership as criteria for determining the concurrent validity of the Holland and Basic Interest scales of the Strong Vocational Interest Blank (Form T399). Subjects were 89 thirty-six-year-old males representing a variety of occupations. R. H. Dolliver's (Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1975, 22, 199–203) two methods for assessing validity were used: highest single scores on relevant scales and scores above established cutoff points on relevant scales. Results indicated greater congruence between interest scales and occupations than interest scales and leisure activities, except when Basic Interest scale cutoff scores were used. After chance factors were taken into account, Holland scales were found to be more accurate than Basic Interest scales in identifying occupations and in identifying leisure activities when highest scale scores were used. Using cutoff scores, Basic Interest scales were more accurate than Holland scales in identifying leisure activities. Supplementary analyses indicated that the validity of the Holland and Basic Interest scales increases when they are presumed to reflect either current occupation or preferred leisure activity. Results of this study were compared with Dolliver's (1975) findings.     

A computer-controlled olfactometer for fMRI and electrophysiological studies of olfaction

A design for an inexpensive and reliable olfactometer is presented. The design has several advantages for fMRI and electrophysiology investigators. These advantages include relatively rapid odorant rise times, computer control, multiple odor administration, and no ferrous materials near the subjects. In addition, the device is contamination resistant, and, because the air is neither warmed nor humidified, it is unlikely to become an incubator for bacteria. The olfactometer is constructed of off-the-shelf chromatography parts that require little modification.     

An electrophysiological model of working memory performance

Working memory (WM) enables us to keep a limited amount of information in active mode. It is believed that attention refreshes necessary information in WM and prevents their forgetting. Despite a plethora of models offered, it is not fully understood that what factors may be involved in forgetfulness and in the required time for refreshing the information. In this study, an electrophysiological model of WM is proposed that consists of several resistor-capacitor units. Inspired of the “resource capacity theory,” attention as a limited source of energy refreshes the voltage level of these units. According to the “time-based resource sharing theory,” only one of these units is allowed to use the limited source of attention at each moment. The source of attention is shared between active units. This model mimics the pattern of several well-known observations of WM such as the recall interval, the word length, and the serial position effect. Some suggestions have been provided about influencing factors in WM performance. Model parameters give the ability of investigating the possible effect of some other factors on WM performance and also a probable prediction about how much information can we chunk?     

A dyadic stimulus set of audiovisual affective displays for the study of multisensory,emotional, social interactions

We describe the creation of the first multisensory stimulus set that consists of dyadic, emotional, point-light interactions combined with voice dialogues. Our set includes 238 unique clips, which present happy, angry and neutral emotional interactions at low, medium and high levels of emotional intensity between nine different actor dyads. The set was evaluated in a between-design experiment, and was found to be suitable for a broad potential application in the cognitive and neuroscientific study of biological motion and voice, perception of social interactions and multisensory integration. We also detail in this paper a number of supplementary materials, comprising AVI movie files for each interaction, along with text files specifying the three dimensional coordinates of each point-light in each frame of the movie, as well as unprocessed AIFF audio files for each dialogue captured. The full set of stimuli is available to download from: http://motioninsocial.com/stimuli_set/.     

The role of the human thalamus in language and memory: evidence from electrophysiological studies

The data reviewed here indicate that electrical stimulation of the dominant ventrolateral thalamus can produce deficits in language processing that are not seen after similar stimulation of the nondominant ventrolateral thalamus. The nature of the language deficit produced varies, depending upon the rostrocaudal location of the stimulation site. Stimulation of the anterior left ventrolateral thalamus in right-handed patients resulted in production of a repeated erroneous word, stimulation of the medial ventrolateral thalamus evoked perseveration, and stimulation of the posterior ventrolateral thalamus and anterior pulvinar resulted in misnaming and omissions. Additional studies have examined the effect of electrical thalamic stimulation on verbal and nonverbal short-term memory. Left (but not right) ventrolateral thalamic stimulation during verbal memory input greatly decreased subsequent recall errors, while stimulation during verbal memory retrieval increased recall errors. This finding contrasted with those obtained from studies on nonverbal memory, in which right ventrolateral stimulation during memory input decreased recall errors, while left thalamic stimulation at the same stage increased recall errors. Left pulvinar stimulation disrupted verbal memory processing, while right pulvinar stimulation disrupted nonverbal memory processing. Limited evidence suggests that the effects of thalamic electrical stimulation on verbal memory may persist for several days after the stimulation has ended. The lateralization of thalamic functions also affects the motoric aspects of speech production. Left (but not right) ventrolateral thalamic stimulation disrupted speech articulation and increased the expiratory phase of respiration. The fact that these motor effects were evoked from the same general area of the thalamus that produced the language deficits discussed above raises the possibility that the thalamus is involved in coordinating the cognitive and motoric aspects of language production. A model of thalamic function is discussed in which defined regions of the thalamus operate as a "specific alerting response," increasing the input to memory of category-specific material while simultaneously inhibiting retrieval from memory.     

Gender bias and construct validity in vocational interest measurement: Differential item functioning in the Strong Interest Inventory

Item response theory was used to address gender bias in interest measurement. Differential item functioning (DIF) technique, SIBTEST and DIMTEST for dimensionality, were applied to the items of the six General Occupational Theme (GOT) and 25 Basic Interest (BI) scales in the Strong Interest Inventory. A sample of 1860 women and 1105 men was used. The scales were not unidimensional and contain both primary and minor dimensions. Gender-related DIF was detected in two-thirds of the items. Item type (i.e., occupations, activities, school subjects, types of people) did not differ in DIF. A sex-type dimension was found to influence the responses of men and women differently. When the biased items were removed from the GOT scales, gender differences favoring men were reduced in the R and I scales but gender differences favoring women remained in the A and S scales. Implications for the development, validation and use of interest measures are discussed.     

An electrophysiological model of human visual reaction time

Human visual reaction times were fractionated into component latencies measuring visual reception time, opto-motor integration time, central motor outflow time, and peripheral motor time on the basis of evoked cortical activity recorded from the intact scalp and the occurrence of the response electromyogram. Normative data are presented for a right-foot dorsiflexion task studied on 18 male subjects, together with an analysis of inter- and intra-subject variability in response timing. Faster reactors were found to display briefer opto-motor integration times and motor times, while an individual's faster responses were characterized by shorter motor outflow times and motor time. These results are interpreted in terms of varying physiological mechanisms.     

The validity of the Crites model of career maturity

To test the validity of the Crites model of career maturity, career maturity and noncareer maturity measures were administered to 312 ninth graders and to 200 technical college students. Scores on all measures were intercorrelated and factor analyzed. The results show that, as predicted, most of the Career Choice Competencies have more in common with each other than they have with Career Choice Attitudes; Career Choice Competencies are fairly highly positively related to each other; Career Choice Attitudes and Career Choice Competencies have more in common with each other in grade 9 than they do in the post-secondary grades; and there is a relationship between career maturity and sex and race of ninth graders and technical college students. The results do not support the hypothesized multidimensional structure of the Crites model or the hypothesis that variables in the Crites model have more in common with each other than they have with noncareer maturity variables. Discussion includes several possible explanations for failure to support the Crites model, and suggestions for further research.     

Estimating the validity of the guilty knowledge test from simulated experiments: the external validity of mock crime studies

This experiment was designed to examine the external validity of the standard mock-crime procedure used extensively to evaluate the validity of polygraph tests. The authors manipulated the type of mock-crime procedure (standard vs. a more realistic version) and the time of test (immediate vs. delayed) and examined their effects on the validity of the Guilty Knowledge Test (GKT) and the recall rate of the relevant items. The results indicated that only the type of mock-crime affected the 2 outcome variables. The realistic procedure was associated with a lower recall rate and weaker detection efficiency than the standard procedure. However, these effects were mediated by the type of GKT questions used. Practical implications of these results are discussed.     

Examining the convergent validity of shared mental model measures

Despite widespread interest in shared mental models (SMMs) within teams and groups and an extensive empirical literature examining SMM?Cperformance links, very little is known about the convergent validity of commonly used measures of SMMs. In this study, two-person teams (n = 96) engaged in a complex flight task and completed three SMM measures: concept mapping, paired ratings, and causal mapping. Task-based sharedness scores were compared across the measures. Analyses were conducted in two ways: using SMMs of actual team members (n = 96 pairs) and using the SMMs of pairs of participants who worked separately but for whom similarity indices were calculated after the study (n = 18,240). The purpose of the latter pairs, coined pseudo-partners, was to create a sample with considerable power to test the convergent validity of the SMM measures. The results call into some question the convergent validity of these task-based SMM measures.