Implicit social cognition: from measures to mechanisms

Most human cognition occurs outside conscious awareness or conscious control. Some of these implicit processes influence social perception, judgment and action. The past 15 years of research in implicit social cognition can be characterized as the Age of Measurement because of a proliferation of measurement methods and research evidence demonstrating their practical value for predicting human behavior. Implicit measures assess constructs that are distinct, but related, to self-report assessments, and predict variation in behavior that is not accounted for by those explicit measures. The present state of knowledge provides a foundation for the next age of implicit social cognition: clarification of the mechanisms underlying implicit measurement and how the measured constructs influence behavior.     

Altruistic behavior as a costly signal of general intelligence

Unconditional altruism is an enduring puzzle for evolutionary approaches to social behavior. In this paper, we argue that costly signaling theory, a well-established framework in biology and economics, may be useful to shed light on the individual differences in human unconditional altruism. Based on costly signaling theory, we propose and show that unconditional altruistic behavior is related to general intelligence. The cost incurred by engaging in unconditional altruism is lower for highly intelligent people than for less intelligent people because they may expect to regain the drained resources. As a result, unconditional altruism can serve as an honest signal of intelligence. Our findings imply that distinguishing altruistic behavior from cooperative behavior in social psychological and economic theories of human behavior might be useful and that costly signaling theory may provide novel insights on various individual difference variables.     

文化差异视角下个体合作行为的产生、影响机制建构及认知神经基础

合作行为是指个体或群体之间为了实现共同的目标和利益而进行的协同行为或意向。本文基于行为-认知-大脑的三重映射关系,对合作行为的文化差异性进行了深入阐释,并在此基础上构建了文化影响合作行为的社会认知中介模型;未来研究可从实证视角对合作行为文化差异的社会认知内容、认知神经机制等方面进行验证、挖掘和改善。     

Personal and Social Factors in Achievement-Related Cognition: A Study of Attribution,Appraisal, and Emotion among University Students in Delhi

In recent years, achievement-related cognition and emotion have received a lot of attention from all sections of researchers. A number of researchers have tried to empirically study the determinants and consequences of achievement-related cognition. The explanations given range between individualistic explanations and sociocultural explanations. It is believed that both personal and social factors interact together in bringing about variations in achievement-related cognition and emotion. It is widely accepted that there are variations in human behavior, which are generally believed to be the result of generation-old cultural changes. Cultural factors are believed to exert influence on human behavior and psyche. When one talks about culture, it is mostly treated as a homogeneous entity. Variations within cultures and intra-cultural differences due to various social factors are largely ignored. Researchers world over have started believing in the fact that exposure not only to varying cultural conditions but also to different social factors affects individuals’ psychological functioning. Present research is directed towards exploring variations in achievement-related cognition and emotion due to personal and social factors. Eighty students from a university in Delhi participated in the research. The personal factor of self-construal and social factors like gender, social setting, perceived social class, and family were taken into account. Findings of the study corroborated the hypothesis that both personal and social factors have an impact on achievement-related cognition and emotion.     

内隐社会认知视野中的攻击性

本文从内隐社会认知的角度对人类的攻击性进行了探讨,认为人类的攻击性更具内隐性,对人们的影响是以一种自动化的方式进行的,而且认为欲求对攻击性进行量化研究最佳方式是间接测量。本文还对研究攻击性的内隐社会认知方法进行了简单介绍,并指出了从内隐社会认知角度研究攻击性的重要意义。     

Children's Explanations as a Window Into Their Intuitive Theories of the Social World

Social categorization is an early emerging and robust component of social cognition, yet the role that social categories play in children's understanding of the social world has remained unclear. The present studies examined children's (N = 52 four‐ and five‐year olds) explanations of social behavior to provide a window into their intuitive theories of how social categories constrain human action. Children systematically referenced category memberships and social relationships as causal‐explanatory factors for specific types of social interactions: harm among members of different categories more than harm among members of the same category. In contrast, they systematically referred to agents' mental states to explain the reverse patterns of behaviors: harm among members of the same category more than harm among members of different categories. These data suggest that children view social category memberships as playing a causal‐explanatory role in constraining social interactions.     

中国文化中非言语行为的社会认知

中国文化中具有十分丰富的社会认知思想,其中包括通过非言语行为进行社会认知的思想。中国文化中非言语行为的社会认知,是指通过对认知对象的非言语行为的判断以达到对认知对象的了解过程,包括视瞻、言语、容止、颜色、声音、好尚等内容。中国文化中非言语行为的社会认知是典型的具有中国文化特色的社会认知,它以中国社会、中国文化、中国人的思维和生活方式以及中国语言特有的形式表现出来,既不同于西方的社会认知思想,也有别于现代社会认知的理念和范式,形成了独具特色、自成体系的中国人的社会认知心理思想。     

权力的社会认知研究述评

作为人类古老现象的权力,却是社会心理学的一个崭新课题。近年来,社会心理学家从社会认知的视角对权力心理进行了很多具有启发性的研究。理论和实证研究表明,权力的存在或激发广泛地影响了个体有意和无意的社会认知、情绪和社会行为,这些心理和行为既包含消极的成分,也包含中性和积极的成分。文章指出了权力心理学具有“强调社会认知、基础认知甚至神经机制”等特点和趋势。     

The role of cognitive architectures in general artificial intelligence

The term “Cognitive Architectures” indicates both abstract models of cognition, in natural and artificial agents, and the software instantiations of such models which are then employed in the field of Artificial Intelligence (AI). The main role of Cognitive Architectures in AI is that one of enabling the realization of artificial systems able to exhibit intelligent behavior in a general setting through a detailed analogy with the constitutive and developmental functioning and mechanisms underlying human cognition. We provide a brief overview of the status quo and the potential role that Cognitive Architectures may serve in the fields of Computational Cognitive Science and Artificial Intelligence (AI) research.     

Adolescents: why they can be so obnoxious

This paper describes examples of adolescent behavior which parents and school personnel find obnoxious. It attempts to explain why intelligent, reasonable and well-adjusted teenagers periodically behave in this way, as something that is developmentally inevitable given the uneven development of competencies in several important areas. Adolescent incompetencies in four areas (cognitive, social cognition, moral judgment, and knowledge of the world) are discussed and exemplified by resulting behavior (including the current Cabbage Patch doll fad). Suggestions for dealing positively with the sometimes difficult and exasperating behavior of adolescents are offered.     

Twelve issues for cognitive science

I am struck by how little is known about so much of cognition. One goal of this paper is to argue for the need to consider a rich set of interlocking issues in the study of cognition. Mainstream work in cognition—including my own—ignores many critical aspects of animate cognitive systems. Perhaps one reason that existing theories say so little relevant to real world activities is the neglect of social and cultural factors, of emotion, and of the major points that distinguish an animate cognitive system from an artificial one: the need to survive, to regulate its own operation, to maintain itself, to exist in the environment, to change from a small, uneducated, immature system to an adult, developed, knowledgeable one. Human cognition is not the same as artificial cognition, if only because the human organism must also be concerned with the problems of life, of development, of survival. There must be a regulatory system that interacts with the cognitive component. And it may well be that it is the cognitive component that is subservient, evolved primarily for the benefit of the regulatory system, working through the emotions, through affect. I argue that several concepts must become fundamental parts of the study of cognition, including the roles of culture, of social interaction, of emotions, and of motivation. I argue that there are at least 12 issues that should comprise the study of cognition, and thereby, the field of Cognitive Science. We need to study a wide variety of behavior before we can hope to understand a single class. Cognitive scientists as a whole ought to make more use of evidence from the neurosciences, from brain damage and mental illness, from cognitive sociology and anthropology, and from clinical studies of the human. These must be accompanied, of course, with the study of language, of the psychological aspects of human processing structures, and of artificially intelligent mechanisms. The study of Cognitive Science requires a complex interaction among different issues of concern, an interaction that will not be properly understood until all parts are understood, with no part independent of the others, the whole requiring the parts, and the parts the whole.     

认知、动机、情感因素对谈判行为的影响

谈判,指两方或多方就利益不同而进行的协商,是解决选择冲突最常见的方式之一。认知、动机及情感因素,影响谈判者的信息处理与判断推理过程。谈判中它们既可能导致决策偏差,也可能促进决策质量。长期以来着眼于认知过程的谈判研究在社会心理学中占主流地位。近年,动机与情感因素对谈判行为的影响受到越来越多的关注。从社会认知的冷（cold：认知）、热（hot：动机、情感）两个角度,系统解析相关研究近年来的进展与成果,可以为揭示认知、动机、情感间的互动如何影响谈判行为打下基础     

Clericalism: Enabler of Clergy Sexual Abuse

Sexual abuse by Catholic clergy and religious has become the greatest challenge facing Catholicism since the Reformation. Violations of clerical celibacy have occurred throughout history. The institutional church remains defensive while scholars in the behavioral and social sciences probe deeply into the nature of institutional Catholicism, searching for meaningful explanations for the dysfunctional sexual behavior. Clericalism which has traditionally led to deep-seated societal attitudes about the role of the clergy in religious and secular society, explains in part why widespread abuse has apparently been allowed. Clericalism has a profound emotional and psychological influence on victims, church leadership, and secular society. It has enabled the psychological duress experienced by victims which explains why many have remained silent for years. It has also inspired societal denial which has impeded many from accepting clergy sexual abuse as a serious and even horrific crime. Thomas P. Doyle is a Canon Lawyer and Certified Addictions Specialist.     

How societal stereotypes might form and evolve via cumulative cultural evolution

The current article examines how societal stereotypes might form and evolve through a process of cumulative cultural evolution as social information is repeatedly passed from person to person. Social psychology research has done much to inform our understanding about the substantial influence stereotypes exert on us as individuals and on our society, yet comparatively little is known about how society's pools of stereotype knowledge form and how they evolve. Here, we review evidence that as social information is repeatedly passed from person to person, there is a continuous cycle of stereotype formation and evolution that is driven by constraints and biases in (a) observations of the social environment, (b) cognitive representations of the social environment, and (c) social transmissions of cognitive representations of the social environment. We suggest the reason stereotypes exist and persist is because they are perfectly adapted for human cognition and the reason they are perfectly adapted for human cognition is because they are the cumulative product of human cognition.     

Marx's genealogy of the idea of equality

Contrary to egalitarian readings of both Marx's critique of capitalist society and its replacement by communist society, his lack of commitment to the idea of equality has been emphasized. I argue that Marx's statements concerning the idea of equality, and especially how it would represent an inappropriate norm for genuine communist society, are ultimately to be explained in terms of its relation to the exchange value that governs acts of commodity exchange. Marx wants to show how general recognition of the idea of equality and the legal and political forms that it assumes have their origin in the way in which exchange value has come to dominate social relations, leading human beings to develop an abstract conception of themselves, others and how the world ought to be that is incompatible with the goals of communist society.     

斯腾伯格（R．J．Sternberg）智力成分理论述评

成分是斯腾伯格提出的分析智力操作的基本单元。成分分析是对智力行为心理机制的描述。但成分理论不能独立地说明智力,它隶属于斯氏三重智力理论的总体框架。论文分析了成分的性质、种类及其相互作用,并对个体和年龄差异在各种成分功能上的表现作出解释。成分理论的提出是对人脑黑箱软件意义上的工作原理的可贵探索。但它在可证伪性方面是有缺陷的。     

核心价值体系:社会资本的支撑性要素

从伦理学的角度看,社会资本是一种以社会交往为载体,通过信任规范机制以及成型化关系网络产生社会信任进而配置社会资源的社会活动方式,它既包括社会个体的行为方式,更折射社会整体的价值体系。社会资本生存并服务于人类的社会关系和交往活动。社会交往自身特质和社会资本匮乏使得核心价值体系构成了社会资本的支撑性要素和价值基础,指导着社会资本的合理发展。把核心价值体系纳入社会资本建设体系有助于社会资本的积聚和核心价值体系功效的发挥。核心价值体系作为社会资本的支撑性要素,有助于整合人们的认知、情感、意志和行为,有助于达成共识、减少纷争、扩大交流、增进互信与和谐。形成合理融洽的社会资本结构体系和良性互动的社会运行机制。     

Mentalisierung und externalisierende Verhaltensstörungen in der Adoleszenz

Social cognition creates the conditions for successful human interaction. Externalizing disorders are characterized by a failure of adequate social cooperation. Therefore, social cognition seems to be a key factor in understanding externalizing behavior, its etiology and treatment options. The present article combines the clinical theory of mentalization with the state-of-the-art of empirical data on externalizing behavior and of the theory-of-mind research as well as research on social information processing. Empirical evidence suggests that there are distinct deficits in social cognition depending on the type of aggression (proactive or reactive). However, even though it is known from a neurobiological perspective that social cognition is reorganized in adolescence, research on externalizing behavior and social cognition in adolescence is limited. Hence the analysis of two studies is presented which compared reflective functioning between a group of late adolescent violent offenders and a control group. A total of 42 young men participated in the studies and were interviewed with the adult attachment interview. Interviews were coded with the reflective functioning scale. Results showed that violent offenders scored significantly lower on the reflective functioning scale than age and gender matched controls. This result is independent of intelligence. Instrumental proactive aggression and psychopathic tendencies are also strongly associated with lower reflective functioning. The results underline the importance of therapeutic interventions for externalizing adolescents which enhance reflective functioning.     

人工智能辅助下的心理健康新型测评

近年来, 人工智能技术的飞速发展及应用催生了“智能化心理健康测评”这一领域。智能化心理健康测评能够弥补传统方法的不足, 降低漏诊率并提高诊断效率, 这对于心理健康问题的普查及预警具有重大意义。目前, 智能化心理健康测评处于初步发展阶段, 研究者基于在线行为数据、便携式设备数据等开展主要以数据驱动为导向的探索研究, 旨在实现更高的预测准确率, 但是测评结果的可解释性等指标尚不够理想。未来的智能化心理健康测评需要强调心理学领域知识和经验的深度介入, 提高测评的针对性和精细化程度, 加强信效度检验, 这对于智能化心理健康测评工具的进一步发展和应用至关重要。     

人际归因与行为责任推断研究综述

人际归因是归因研究的一个新领域。现代归因与行为责任推断研究除了关注动机归因理论的构建之外,还十分重视将该理论运用于解决社会实际问题,并初步建立了归因与行为责任推断的理论模型,近年来取得了一系列研究成果。这些成果对于更好地了解人类的社会行为具有重要的意义,同时也代表了现代归因研究发展的一个新趋势。