Influence of sensitivity on response bias in taste and audition

A detection theoretic analysis was employed to examine sensitivity and response bias in two modalities. In Experiment 1, 6 tasters made same-different judgments about the concentration of either sucrose or quinine in pairs of tonic water samples. The beverages were colored, but color was not predictive of the concentration of the sweet or bitter ingredient. When same-different ratings were collapsed to approximate the outcome of a categorical decision, tasters with poorer sensitivity appear to have adopted more extreme response criteria than did tasters with greater sensitivity, irrespective of taste quality, color, or whether pairs of solutions comprised the same or different colors. In Experiment 2, 3 individuals discriminated pairs of 1000-Hz sinusoids differing in amplitude. Six amplitude differences were tested. Rating-scale versions of two paradigms: The single-interval yes-no task and the two-interval same-different task were used to measure sensitivity and bias. There was a preponderance of "same" responses in the same-different task. Estimates of bias obtained from collapsed ratings in both tasks were unaffected by sensitivity, but a consideration of the range over which sets of criteria were spread suggested a general tendency toward more conservative response biases as sensitivity declined.     

The effect of color intensity and appropriateness on color-induced odor enhancement

Coloring solutions has been shown to increase perceived odor intensity. In Experiment 1, subjects rated the odor intensity of red strawberry and green mint solutions that had four levels of color intensity. Ratings of strawberry odor peaked at the medium color intensity and ratings of mint odor increased monotonically with color intensity. Thus, color-induced odor enhancement can increase with increasing color intensity but need not. Experiment 2 found that the color intensities producing maximum odor enhancement in Experiment 1 are not always the ones perceived as most appropriate for the odorants. Using different odors, Experiment 3 found that color intensity has some influence on the strength of the color-induced odor enhancement and color appropriateness has little. The presence or absence of color in the solution seems to be the most important variable.     

Influence of color on odor identification and liking ratings.

The effects of color on odor identification were tested under color appropriate, inappropriate, and blindfolded conditions. Subjects made fewer errors in identifying solutions that were colored appropriately (e.g., red-cherry) than in either the blindfolded condition, where there were no color cues, or the inappropriate color condition (e.g., red-lemon). Identification accuracy was greatest for typical odor-color combinations (e.g., red-cherry) compared with appropriate but nontypical odor-color combinations (e.g., red-watermelon). Response latencies were fastest for odors in the appropriately colored solutions. Subjects also rated appropriate color-odor combinations as most pleasant. However, this effect is probably due to the increase in identification accuracy of the appropriately colored solutions. In all three conditions, correctly identified odors were liked more than odors that were not correctly identified. Thus, color is an important perceptual variable in odor identification because it biases subjects toward a color category that facilitates identification if the color is "correct". This ability to identify an odor in turn influences the affective response to the odor.     

Ratings of pleasantness and intensity for beverages served in containers congruent and incongruent with expectancy

Pleasantness and intensity ratings of beverages served in containers congruent and incongruent with expectancy were assessed. Past research has shown that the violation of food expectancies, e.g., color, taste, temperature, leads to more negative evaluations of food. Thus, it was hypothesized that beverages sampled from a container incongruent with expectancy, e.g., beer from a coffee cup, would be rated less favorably than the same beverage sampled from a container congruent with expectancy, e.g., beer from a beer bottle. 61 participants evaluated three beverages (beer, orange juice, and hot chocolate) in three containers (bottle, glass, and cup) using 11-point rating scales for pleasantness and intensity. Analysis indicated beverages were rated as significantly more pleasant in containers congruent with expectancy, as well as rated more intense when presented in bottles. These results further address the effects of violating expectations on producing negative hedonic evaluations.     

Formation of associations of colored and flavored food with induced sickness in five avian species

Domestic ducks, geese, pigeons, quail, and chickens were given colored, flavored, or colored and flavored food and then injected with lithium chloride. Each species showed learning of color and taste aversions. Flavor facilitated the formation of color aversions in ducks, geese, and pigeons but not in quail or chickens. Color interfered with the formation of flavor aversions in quail and chickens but not in the other three species. These findings indicate that all birds can probably associate both colored and flavored food with induced sickness and that colored food is more easily associated with induced sickness than is colored water. Moreover, these findings suggest that the capacity to associate colored and flavored food with induced sickness and the interaction between color and flavor in food vary between species. Birds, such as quail and chickens, that eat relatively tasteless food rely more on color than on flavor cues when forming learned food aversions. Birds that can select their food on the basis of taste, such as ducks and geese, rely more on flavor than on color when forming aversions to food. Birds, such as pigeons, that are initially raised on tasty food before switching to predominantly tasteless food show tendencies that are similar to those of ducks and geese.     

Phenomenal characteristics of guided imagery,natural imagery,and autobiographical memories

Research indicates that guided imagery experiences can be mistaken for actual experiences under some circumstances. One explanation for such effects is that memory representations of guided imagery and actual events contain similar phenomenal characteristics such as sensory and contextual details, making the source of the events less distinguishable. This study examined this prediction, comparing memory characteristic ratings for guided imagery experiences with those for memories of perceived and natural imagery events (e.g., fantasies). Results replicated previous findings for the difference between perceived and natural imagery memories. Guided imagery ratings were also lower than those for perceived memories for most sensory details (sound, smell, and taste) and temporal details. However, guided imagery ratings for reflective details were lower than both perceived and natural imagery memory ratings. Thus, guided imagery was similar to natural imagery with respect to sensory details, but similar to perceived memories with respect to reflective details.     

Bright Cars and Speeding Tickets

Speeding tickets for a 22 month period in a suburban area were examined to determine the possible relationships among the percentage of speed over the speed limit, the age and color of the car, and the age and gender of the driver. The frequencies of speeding tickets by car color were also compared with the frequencies of cars on the road by colors. The percentage of speed over the limit was not related to the characteristics of the cars or the drivers. It was found, however, that red, grey, and brown cars were more likely to receive speeding tickets than cars of other colors. A previous conclusion that bright colored cars give the impression of speed, which results in a higher estimation of actual velocity, was not supported by the present study.     

Aesthetic response to color combinations: preference, harmony, and similarity

Previous studies of preference for and harmony of color combinations have produced confusing results. For example, some claim that harmony increases with hue similarity, whereas others claim that it decreases. We argue that such confusions are resolved by distinguishing among three types of judgments about color pairs: (1) preference for the pair as a whole, (2) harmony of the pair as a whole, and (3) preference for its figural color when viewed against its colored background. Empirical support for this distinction shows that pair preference and harmony both increase as hue similarity increases, but preference relies more strongly on component color preference and lightness contrast. Although pairs with highly contrastive hues are generally judged to be neither preferable nor harmonious, figural color preference ratings increase as hue contrast with the background increases. The present results thus refine and clarify some of the best-known and most contentious claims of color theorists.     

Nasal,retronasal, and gustatory perception: An experimental comparison

Four odor substances (lemon aroma, rum aroma, ethyl butyrate, and amyl acetate) in different concentrations were presented nasally and orally (retronasally) in a four-alternative forced-choice procedure (detection tasks). In a further experimental condition, sucrose was added to the stimuli. Finally, the taste properties of the (nonsugared) odor stimuli were judged on seven semantic scales. In the detection of odor-containing stimuli, there were no significant differences between nasal and retronasal stimulation. In the taste conditions, however, there was a significant decline of “hits” when the stimuli contained sucrose in addition to the odor substances. Furthermore, in semantic scaling of the taste stimuli, a new variant of the taste-smell illusion was observed, namely, a tendency to attribute “suited” basic taste categories (e.g., “sweet”) to pure (nongustatory) odor stimuli.     

Men's and women's ratings of life satisfaction by age of respondent and age interval judged

A total of 432 people in six age groups rated the satisfaction of their current, past, and projected future lives. Average ratings for men and women did not differ. However, the triple interaction of sex × age of respondent × age interval judged indicated an optimism toward the future on the part of women. Compared with men of the same age, women judged the age interval prior to their own, as well as their present age interval, as being less satisfying than did the men. But women expected levels of satisfaction in the future to be higher than men expected. This optimism is attributed to socialization differences as well as the hope engendered by the current feminist movement.     

The effectiveness of electric shock and foul odor as unconditioned stimuli in classical aversive conditioning

In a partial replication of an earlier study, eighty undergraduate volunteers were assigned to the eight cells of a three between- and two within-group experimental design. One factor was the nature of the UCS—faradic shock or a carefully-timed blast of pyridine vapor; the second factor was the UCS contingency—the UCS being contingent upon the CS or randomly interspersed; the third factor was the nature of the CS—all CSs were compounds of colored, flavored liquids, with the discriminable dimension being either color or taste. The two within-subjects factors were the successive presentation of either the CS+ of the CS? over trials in a standard classical conditioning format. The outcome measures were sip-size, order of preference, and semantic differential ratings. It was found that the foul odor UCS resulted in no aversive conditioning with either color or taste cues. Where shock was the UCS, color, but not taste, became aversive. While lending no direct support to cue-appropriateness concepts, the results reveal the complexity of cue utilization in human aversive conditioning.     

Tooth color: effects on judgments of attractiveness and age

Tooth whitening has become a very popular procedure. Advertisements for whitening products imply that whiter teeth are more attractive than yellower teeth. We tested this idea empirically by manipulating the tooth color of pictures of male and female targets. Participants' ratings of attractiveness were not influenced by tooth color. Exp. 2 yielded a negative correlation between attractiveness and age ratings: targets judged to be older were rated as less attractive. Unless whiter teeth help in some other way, e.g., improved self-esteem or confidence, it seems that tooth whitening procedures or products are not associated with increased attractiveness to others.     

Novelty,complexity, and hedonic value

Two experiments, in which Ss were exposed to sequences of colored shapes, investigated effects on ratings of “pleasingness” and “interestingness” of variables that had previously been shown to affect ratings of “novelty.” The results indicate, on the whole, that both pleasingness and interestingness increase with novelty. These findings run counter to those of experiments indicating an inverse relation between novelty and verbally expressed preference. Two further experiments examined effects of some variables that might account for this apparent discrepancy. Homogeneous sequences declined in judged “pleasantness” more than sequences in which several stimuli were interspersed, and simple stimuli became less pleasant as they became less novel, while complex stimuli declined less or became more pleasant. The findings are related to hypotheses regarding mechanisms of hedonic value. Two crucial predictions were confirmed in a fifth experiment.     

Resistance to extinction of conditioned odor perceptions: evaluative conditioning is not unique

A tasteless odor will smell sweeter after being sampled by mouth with sucrose and will smell sourer after being sampled with citric acid. This tasty-smell effect was found in experiments that compared odor-taste and color-taste pairings. Using odors and colors with minimal taste (Experiment 1), the authors found that repeated experience of odor-taste mixtures produced conditioned changes in odor qualities that were unaffected by intermixed color-taste trials (Experiment 2). An extinction procedure, consisting of postconditioning presentations of the odor in water, had no detectable effect on the changed perception of an odor (Experiments 3 and 4). In contrast, this procedure altered judgments about the expected taste of colored solutions. Evaluative conditioning (conditioned changes in liking) is claimed to be resistant to extinction. However, these results suggest that resistance to extinction in odors is related to the way they are encoded rather than to their hedonic properties.     

Bulimia and taste: possible interactions

Potential abnormalities of taste were examined in bulimic subjects who purged by vomiting and in controls. When spatial testing of the tongue and palate was performed by direct local application of sweet, salty, sour, and bitter solutions, bulimics showed a selective spatial loss on the palate. The palate may be affected by purging because vomit is directed toward the roof of the mouth where the palate receptors are located. The data suggest that the acid in vomit damages these receptors. Bulimics and controls did not differ in their basal ratings of intensity or pleasantness of sweet, salty, sour, and bitter stimuli when these were sipped rather than directly applied to the tongue. However, after ingesting a glucose load, controls found sweet taste significantly less pleasant, whereas bulimics did not. The results suggest that bulimics may also have an abnormal experience of satiety.     

Hair Color and Courtship: Blond Women Received More Courtship Solicitations and Redhead Men Received More Refusals

Previous research on the effect of hair color on people??s evaluation and behavior has revealed discrepant results and the real effect of both male and female hair color on their mating attractiveness has never been tested. In Study 1, female confederates wearing blond, brown, black or red colored wigs were observed while sitting in a nightclub. In Study 2, male confederates wearing different colored wigs asked women in a nightclub for a dance. It was found that blond women were more frequently approached by men whereas blond males did not receive more acceptances to their requests. However, in both conditions, red hair was associated with less attractiveness. Evolutionary theory and differences in mating preferences are used to explain the blond hair effect. Scarcity of red-haired individuals in the population and negative stereotypes associated with red hair are used to explain the negative effect of red hair.     

‘Beauty is in the eye of the beer holder’: People who think they are drunk also think they are attractive

This research examines the role of alcohol consumption on self‐perceived attractiveness. Study 1, carried out in a barroom (N= 19), showed that the more alcoholic drinks customers consumed, the more attractive they thought they were. In Study 2, 94 non‐student participants in a bogus taste‐test study were given either an alcoholic beverage (target BAL [blood alcohol level]= 0.10 g/100 ml) or a non‐alcoholic beverage, with half of each group believing they had consumed alcohol and half believing they had not (balanced placebo design). After consuming beverages, they delivered a speech and rated how attractive, bright, original, and funny they thought they were. The speeches were videotaped and rated by 22 independent judges. Results showed that participants who thought they had consumed alcohol gave themselves more positive self‐evaluations. However, ratings from independent judges showed that this boost in self‐evaluation was unrelated to actual performance.     

Odors and the perception of hygiene

Although certain odors, such as lemon, are commonly associated with cleanliness and positive hygiene, empirical assessment of such associations for other odors and attributes is generally lacking. Moreover, differences between men and women in such associations have not been established. In this study of lemon, onion, pine, and smoke odors, ratings were obtained from 142 men and 336 women (M age= 30.1 yr., SD = 12.3) for odor intensity, gender association (masculine/feminine), and the success, sociability, intelligence, cleanliness, and attractiveness of a hypothetical person whose clothes smell like the odor in question. Ratings of the pleasantness or unpleasantness one would attribute to each odor in various rooms of the home were obtained, as well as a specification of whether such ratings are influenced by laundry habits, e.g., whether laundry is smelled before or after washing. Numerous associations were found. For example, a hypothetical person whose clothes smell of pine was rated as relatively more successful, intelligent, sociable, sanitary, and attractive than one whose clothes smelled of lemon, onion, or smoke. Sex differences, as well as differences between people who reported smelling their own laundry, were also found.     

Context-dependent olfactory learning monitored by activities of salivary neurons in cockroaches

Context-dependent discrimination learning, a sophisticated form of nonelemental associative learning, has been found in many animals, including insects. The major purpose of this research is to establish a method for monitoring this form of nonelemental learning in rigidly restrained insects for investigation of underlying neural mechanisms. We report context-dependent olfactory learning (occasion-setting problem solving) of salivation, which can be monitored as activity changes of salivary neurons in immobilized cockroaches, Periplaneta americana. A group of cockroaches was trained to associate peppermint odor (conditioned stimulus, CS) with sucrose solution reward (unconditioned stimulus, US) while vanilla odor was presented alone without pairing with the US under a flickering light condition (1.0 Hz) and also trained to associate vanilla odor with sucrose reward while peppermint odor was presented alone under a steady light condition. After training, the responses of salivary neurons to the rewarded peppermint odor were significantly greater than those to the unrewarded vanilla odor under steady illumination and those to the rewarded vanilla odor was significantly greater than those to the unrewarded peppermint odor in the presence of flickering light. Similar context-dependent responses were observed in another group of cockroaches trained with the opposite stimulus arrangement. This study demonstrates context-dependent olfactory learning of salivation for the first time in any vertebrate and invertebrate species, which can be monitored by activity changes of salivary neurons in restrained cockroaches.     

Perceptual asynchronies between color and motion at the onset of motion and along the motion trajectory

A color change that is physically simultaneous with the onset of object motion may be perceived as occurring before the initial displacement. In contrast, a colored flash during object motion is displaced in the direction of motion, suggesting that it is perceived after the continuous position change. The aim of our study was to reconcile these apparently conflicting results. To this end, we reexamined color-motion asynchronies as a function of trajectory position. Our results indicate that an abrupt color change lags object motion along the trajectory, but no asynchrony was found when the abrupt color change occurred at motion onset. Even if the lag of color relative to motion decreased with increasing object size, we did not replicate a lag of motion relative to color in any of our experiments. Furthermore, judgments at motion onset were not correlated with judgments along the trajectory, suggesting that the underlying mechanisms or task demands were different. Temporal order may be judged at motion onset, whereas position is judged during ongoing motion.