Social and motivational predictors of continued youth sport participation

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to examine if youth soccer players' perceived relationships with parents and peers in soccer, and the moderating associations among these social relationship variables, predict soccer continuation over and above motivation-related variables.DesignThis study used a prospective design by assessing youth soccer athletes' social relationships and motivational outcomes during one season and tracking the athletes' soccer continuation behavior one year later.MethodsContinuation behavior of travel soccer athletes (N = 148), ages 10–14 years (M = 11.7, SD = 1.0), was assessed one year after completing a questionnaire containing soccer-contextualized measures of perceived parent relationship quality, perceived friendship quality, perceived peer acceptance, perceived competence, enjoyment, stress, and self-determined motivation.ResultsLogistic regression analyses showed that greater perceived competence, more positive friendship quality, and the combination of mother relationship quality and peer relationships predict soccer continuation on the same team.ConclusionsThe findings highlight the importance of close social relationships, and the combination of parent and peer relationships in particular, to sport continuation behavior.     

Achievement goal theory and disordered eating: Relationships of disordered eating with goal orientations and motivational climate in female gymnasts and dancers

ObjectivesTo examine the relationships between disordered eating in female gymnasts and dancers and their perspective towards achievement in sport and dance, respectively. With an emphasis on outperforming others (ego involvement), more disordered eating was expected than when personal progress (task involvement) was emphasized.MethodsNinety-four aesthetic performers from gymnastics (n = 59) and dance (n = 35) completed questionnaires measuring ego and task involvement (individual orientation and motivational climate), dieting, self-esteem, perfectionism and weight-related peer and coach pressure.ResultsPartial correlations indicated that a stronger ego orientation was related to more dieting, greater perfectionism, more weight-related peer pressure, and lower self-esteem. Similar relationships were found for performance climate. Mastery climate on the other hand was negatively related to dieting, and coach and peer pressure, suggesting that when performers perceived the motivational climate as mastery, less frequent dieting was reported and less weight-related coach and peer pressure was perceived. No relationships were found between task orientation and disordered eating. Most importantly, regression analysis showed that after controlling for BMI, both ego orientation and mastery climate made a unique significant contribution to explaining dieting variance.ConclusionsGoal achievement theory is an important framework for explaining disordered eating in female aesthetic performers. Both ego orientation and mastery climate play a role in dieting of gymnasts and dancers. Aesthetic performers who are strongly ego-oriented tend to display more disordered eating correlates. Furthermore, it seems that to protect against disordered eating, coaches and teachers should create a mastery climate and target self-improvement and self-referenced comparisons over interpersonal competitiveness.     

Goal orientations at the global level of generality and in physical education: Their association with self-regulation,affect, beliefs and behaviours

ObjectiveLife skills programs should ensure that their effects generalize across contexts and activities. Three studies are presented examining the construct validity of an instrument assessing global goal orientations in life in conjunction with a measure of goal orientations in physical education. It was also investigated whether the effects of global goal orientations generalize across contexts.MethodParticipants were middle school students (N = 351, N = 580 and N = 658) who completed the two goal orientations instruments, measures of self-regulation, affect and beliefs at the global level of generality and specific to the physical education domain and measures of exercise and academic behaviours.ResultsMulti-sample factor analysis established the factorial validity of the global goal orientations' instrument and the distinctiveness of global goals from achievement goals in physical education. Controlling for social desirability effects, the partial correlations of goal orientations in life with global intrinsic–extrinsic motivation, life satisfaction, pleasant and unpleasant affect in life, purposes of life and perceived purposes of physical education, locomotion and assessment, metacognition in physical education, exercise and academic behaviours, were in the expected direction. In general, global goals made a significant contribution to the explanation of variance of global constructs, while achievement goals in physical education made a unique contribution to the explanation of variance of physical education specific constructs.DiscussionThe results support the construct validity of the instrument assessing global goal orientations in life. They also indicate that global goal orientations are distinct constructs from goal orientations in physical education. The global goal orientations' measure can be particularly useful for practitioners teaching interdisciplinary and life skills.     

Social desirability and relations between goal orientations and competitive trait anxiety in young athletes

ObjectivesTo examine the impact of a social desirability response set on relations between goal orientation and performance anxiety in youth sports.DesignCorrelational field design.MethodData assessing goal orientation, performance anxiety, and social desirability were obtained from male (n=106) and female (n=75) adolescent athletes (M age=12.1 years; SD=1.3 years).ResultsFemale athletes reported significantly higher levels of task orientation and lower levels of ego orientation and concentration disruption, than males. As predicted, ego orientation was positively correlated with all indices of performance anxiety in males and females. Task orientation was negatively associated with all indices of performance anxiety in males but only concentration disruption in females. Social desirability was negatively related to ego orientation in males and females, and positively related to task orientation in females, but not males. Performance anxiety was negatively related to social desirability in females, but not males. Controlling for social desirability attenuated the observed relations between goal orientations and performance anxiety in females, but not males.ConclusionsThese results suggest the importance of incorporating measures of social desirability when studying psychosocial variables with either positive or negative connotations. Our results suggest that social desirability may contribute to relations between goal orientation and anxiety in athletes, particularly females.     

Peers,parents, and coaches,oh my! The relation of the motivational climate to boys' intention to continue in sport

ObjectivesMotivational climates (Ames, 1992) and goal orientations (Nicholls, 1989) are essential in understanding children's experiences with sport. We examined the perceived task-involving motivational climates created by parents, peers, and coaches and their task goal orientation in relation to male adolescent athletes' sport competence, self-esteem and enjoyment, and ultimately, their intention to continue participating.DesignWe used a cross-sectional design with a large convenience sample of male adolescent athletes from the U.S. (N = 405, ages 12–15 years).MethodBoys anonymously completed survey questionnaires during their physical education classes at school.ResultsTask goal orientation was explained by task-involving parent, peer, and coach initiated motivational climates, although parent and peer climates were most influential. Boys with higher task goal orientations reported greater sport competence, self-esteem, and more enjoyment in sport. Intention to continue playing sport primarily was predicted by the boys' enjoyment, and secondarily, by their self-esteem.ConclusionsConsistent with past research, task motivational climates from parents, peers, and coaches play a key role in boys' enjoyment of their sport, which is essential for continued participation.     

Motivation in Masters sport: Achievement and social goals

ObjectiveThis study examined the collective relationships amongst achievement goals, social goals and motivational correlates in Masters sport.MethodThe participants were 373 (184 females; 189 males) Masters athletes from six sports. Ages ranged from 29 years to 77 years (mean=48 years). Cluster analysis was employed to identify ‘goal profiles’ of two achievement goals (task and ego) and three social goals (affiliation, recognition, status). MANOVA was employed to examine the goal profiles for differences on self-perceptions, affect, and motivation.ResultsFive goal profiles were identified and labeled as follows: Cluster 1 (Lo-Aff) low affiliation, moderate task, ego, status, and recognition; Cluster 2 (Lo-Val) low ego, status, and recognition, moderate task and affiliation; Cluster 3 (Hi-Social) high affiliation and status, moderate recognition and task, and low ego; Cluster 4 (Lo-Ach) low task and ego, moderate affiliation, status, and recognition; and Cluster 5 (Hi-Ach) high task, ego, and recognition, moderate affiliation and status. MANOVA revealed that Cluster 3 (Hi-Social) was highest on enjoyment and perceived belonging, while Clusters 3 and 5 (Hi-Ach) were highest on intrinsic motivation, commitment, and perceived ability. Clusters 1 (Lo-Aff) and 4 (Lo-Ach) had lower levels of enjoyment and commitment.ConclusionIn general, these Masters athletes enjoyed their participation, they were committed, they had high perceptions of ability and belonging, and they were predominantly intrinsically motivated. The implications of these motivational profiles for Masters athletes are discussed from both theoretical and applied perspectives.     

Effects of school-based interventions on motivation towards physical activity in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis

IntroductionAssuming that motivation is the key to initiate and sustain beneficial health behaviors, the aim of this systematic review was to analyze the effects of school-based physical activity interventions on a variety of motivational outcomes towards PA in school-aged children and adolescents.MethodsA comprehensive literature search was carried out in six electronic databases to identify randomized controlled trials and quasi-experimental trials examining the effects of PA interventions implemented during the regular school day, e.g., during physical education lessons or lunch breaks. Primary outcomes of interest were students' motivation, basic psychological needs, goal orientation, enjoyment, and motivational teaching climate in physical education. Meta-analyses were conducted for these outcomes using Comprehensive Meta-analysis software. Secondarily, intervention effects on students' PA behaviors were examined and the findings summarized narratively. Methodological quality of studies was evaluated using the Cochrane Collaboration's tool for assessing risk of bias for randomized trials; certainty of evidence on outcome level was evaluated using the GRADE approach.ResultsIn total, 57 studies carried out between 2001 and 2018 were included in this review. Sixteen individual meta-analyses were performed and revealed significant pooled effects for the outcomes enjoyment (g = 0.310), perceived autonomy (g = 0.152), identified regulation (g = 0.378), intrinsic motivation (g = 0.419), self-determination index (g = 0.672), task/mastery climate (g = 0.254), ego/performance climate (g = −0.438), autonomy supportive climate (g = 0.262), task goal orientation (g = 1.370), ego goal orientation (g = −0.188). The narrative data synthesis indicated an increase in students' PA behavior. The overall risk of bias was high across all studies and certainty of evidence of meta-analyzed outcomes ranged from very low to moderate. Moderate certainty of evidence was found for ego/performance climate and ego goal orientation. Conclusions: Meta-analyses suggest that school-based PA interventions may be effective in increasing a variety of motivational outcomes. However, the certainty of evidence was limited in the majority of outcomes. Further research is needed to identify effective intervention strategies that increase students’ motivation towards PA.     

Relationships among Coach Leadership,Peer Leadership,and Adolescent Athletes’ Psychosocial and Team Outcomes: A Test of Transformational Leadership Theory

Transformational leadership theory provided a framework to examine the relationships of coach and peer leadership with individual and team outcomes among team sport athletes. Adolescent female soccer players (N = 412) completed measures assessing coach and teammate transformational leadership behaviors, perceived competence, intrinsic motivation, enjoyment, team cohesion, and collective efficacy. Structural equation modeling revealed that coach leadership was more influential than peer leadership for predicting individual outcomes and collective efficacy, peer leadership was more strongly related to social cohesion than coach leadership, and both peer and coach leadership were equally important for task cohesion. Results are discussed relative to the viability of using transformational leadership theory to understand coach and athlete leadership in the sport domain.     

A Test of Multiple Achievement Goal Benefits in Physical Education Activities

The independent and combined effects of achievement goals for physical education activities were investigated. Both dispositional goal orientations as well as perceived motivational goal climate were assessed, and the paper evaluated four different hypotheses for multiple goal benefits (additive, interactive, specialized, and selective hypotheses). It was hypothesized that students may benefit most from endorsing both task and ego orientations in their fitness activities, especially depending on their perceptions of the motivational climate. However, benefits of pursuing multiple goal orientations were not found. Instead, students reported putting forth more effort, enjoying their fitness activities more, feeling more competent in the activity, and persisting after the semester when they endorsed a task orientation or perceived the motivational climate to be task oriented.     

Testing a bi-factor model to disentangle general and specific factors of motivation in self-determination theory

We examined the utility of the bi-factor model for disentangling general motivation and specific motivations (i.e., amotivation, external, introjected, identified, and intrinsic regulations) in relation to goal progress and physical activity (PA). Participants (N = 186 undergraduate students; M_age = 19.26 years) completed assessments of motivation and PA at Time 1. Four weeks later, PA and goal progress were assessed at Time 2. Results indicated that the exploratory bi-factor model specifying motivational regulations as the specific factors and general motivation as the general factor was a good fit to the data. Results of the structural equation model indicated that identified and intrinsic regulations and general motivation predicted concurrent PA at Time 1. A novel finding was that controlling for concurrent PA at Time 1, general motivation emerged as the only predictor of Time 2 goal progress and PA. Results highlight the importance of examining general motivation in addition to quality of motivation in tandem because general motivation emerged as the sole significant longitudinal predictor of PA outcomes.     

Motivational-behavioral correlates of goal orientation and perceived motivational climate in physical education contexts.

The purpose of this study was to investigate how goal orientation (task and ego) and perceived motivational climate (mastery and performance) related to intrinsic motivation, self-esteem, adherence, and evaluated skill within Korean physical education contexts, 218 men attending physical education classes completed the Korean versions of the Perception of Success Questionnaire and the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire, including a battery of motivational and behavioral assessments. Confirmatory factor analyses suggested that over-all fit for the modified versions of the questionnaires were reasonably acceptable. The results of canonical correlation analyses indicated that the task goal orientation was positively associated with intrinsic motivation and self-esteem, while the climate of perceived mastery was positively related to intrinsic motivation, adherence, and evaluated skill. These results were discussed within the frame of goal perspective theory in physical education contexts.     

Self-handicapping strategies in physical education classes: the influence of implicit theories of the nature of ability and achievement goal orientations

Aim: To investigate the role of implicit theories of ability and achievement goals on self-handicapping strategies in physical education classes.Hypotheses: It was expected that incremental theories of ability would be negatively associated with self-handicapping strategies, whereas fixed theories of ability would enhance pupils’ self-reported use of such strategies. It was also hypothesised that low perceived competence would reinforce self-handicapping among pupils holding fixed theories of ability and an ego goal orientation.Method: A cross-sectional study of 9th graders in Norway (N=343; 166 boys and 177 girls) was conducted in which pupils responded to a questionnaire measuring sub-dimensions of fixed and incremental theories of ability, achievement goal orientations, perceived competence and self-handicapping in physical education.Results: Regression-based path analyses revealed that a fixed theory of ability had a direct positive effect on self-handicapping. The effects of an incremental implicit theory of ability on self-handicapping were negative and mediated by a task orientation. High perceived competence was found to buffer the aversive affect of holding a stable theory of ability on self-handicapping.Conclusion: The findings illustrate the importance of studying implicit motivational beliefs in physical education classes in order to provide an understanding of self-handicapping strategies among pupils.     

Ethnic/cultural identity salience,achievement goals and motivational climate in multicultural physical education classes

ObjectivesThis study investigated the association of ethnic/cultural identity salience with achievement goals and motivational climate in multicultural physical education classes.MethodsQuestionnaires assessing ethnic/cultural identity salience, achievement goals and motivational climate were completed by high school students with Greek (n = 927) and non-Greek (n = 366) ethnic origin. The ethnic/cultural identity salience questionnaire comprised four factors suggesting ethnic belonging, assimilation, feelings of being on the fringe of ethnic identity, and lack of desire to interact with members of other ethnic groups.ResultsMultilevel modeling analyses indicated that task orientation and class learning oriented climate were positively linked with ethnic belonging and assimilation from the larger culture. On the other hand, ego orientation and class performance oriented climates were positively associated with feelings of being on the fringe of ethnic identity, and with lack of desire to interact with members of other ethnic groups.ConclusionsThe present findings encourage the conduct of intervention studies emphasizing task orientation and decreasing ego orientation to promote mutual respect among ethnicities and acculturation from the larger culture.     

The social-cognitive model of achievement motivation in physical education

Our objective in this study was to test the new social-cognitive model of achievement motivation in a physical education setting. Research was conducted on a sample of 895 physical education students, ages 12 to 16 years. We measured perception of the motivational climate conveyed by the teacher, implicit beliefs of ability, perceived competence, 2 x 2 achievement goals and self-determined motivation. We carried out structural equation modeling to analyse the relationships among variables. Results showed that task climate positively predicted incremental belief, whereas ego climate positively predicted entity belief. Both climates positively predicted perceived competence. Incremental belief positively predicted mastery-approach goals, performance-approach goals and avoidance goals, whereas entity belief positively predicted performance-approach goals and avoidance goals. Perceived competence positively predicted mastery-approach and performance-approach goals. Mastery-approach goal positively predicted self-determined motivation, whereas performance-approach goal and avoidance goals negatively predicted self-determined motivation.     

Configurations of actual and perceived motor competence among children: Associations with motivation for sports and global self-worth

The present study used a person-centred approach to examine whether different profiles based on actual and perceived motor competence exist in elementary school children. Multilevel regression analyses were conducted to explore how children with different motor competence-based profiles might differ in their autonomous motivation for sports and global self-worth. Validated questionnaires were administered to 161 children (40% boys; age = 8.82 ± 0.66 years) to assess their perceived motor competence, global self-worth, and motivation for sports. Actual motor competence was measured with the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder. Cluster analyses identified four motor competence-based profiles: two groups were characterized by corresponding levels of actual and perceived motor competence (i.e., low–low and high–high) and two groups were characterized by divergent levels of actual and perceived motor competence (i.e., high–low and low–high). Children in the low–low and high–low group displayed significantly lower levels of autonomous motivation for sports and lower levels of global self-worth than children in the low–high and high–high group. These findings emphasize that fostering children’s perceived motor competence might be crucial to improve their motivation for sports and their global self-worth. Teachers and instructors involved in physical education and youth sports should thus focus on both actual and perceived motor competence.     

Examining the relationship between athletes' achievement goal orientation and ability to employ imagery

ObjectiveImagery ability may be cognitively regulated by motivational states, thus it is important to determine the relationship between goal orientations and imagery ability. Design/Method: Participants were 272 male and female athletes, representing nine sports. Goal orientations and cognitive and motivational imagery abilities were assessed via questionnaires. Task and ego goal orientations were examined via a two-step cluster analysis procedure, resulting in the identification of four goal orientation clusters. Separate multivariate analyses were conducted to assess differences in cognitive imagery ability and motivational imagery ability for the clusters, with gender and sport type entered as covariates. Results: For cognitive imagery ability, gender had a significant effect for athletes with low task/low ego orientation; female athletes rated their internal imagery perspective as clearer and more vivid. Regarding motivational imagery ability, when sport type was controlled for, cluster membership demonstrated a significant multivariate effect. Goal orientations have a relationship with motivational imagery ability but this same relationship was not evident with cognitive imagery ability. Athletes with high task/high ego or high task/low ego goal orientations scored significantly higher on their ability to feel emotions and their ease of generating motivational general-mastery images compared to athletes with low task/high ego or low task/low ego orientations. No differences between goal orientation clusters were found for motivational general-arousal imagery ability. Conclusion: Athletes who have a high task orientation are very motivated and have an easy time forming mastery images and a high ability to experience the emotion of these images.     

Motivational characteristics of obese adolescents toward physical activity: Contribution of self-determination theory

IntroductionRegular physical activity (PA) practice represents a key component of obesity treatment.ObjectiveBased on self-determination theory (SDT), this cross-sectional study aimed to explore the motivational characteristics associated with PA practice among obese adolescents.MethodOne hundred and five overweight or obese adolescents (mean age = 15 years old, SD = 2.69) were questioned about their level of PA, motivational regulations toward PA and level of satisfaction of basic psychological needs.ResultsData revealed that satisfaction of autonomy and relatedness needs is positively associated with autonomous forms of motivation (e.g., for integrated regulation β = .44; and 0.35, respectively, p < .01). Otherwise, non-satisfaction of the needs of autonomy and competence is associated with the most controlled forms of motivation (e.g., for external regulation β = −.27, p < .01; and −.18, p < .05, respectively). In turn, a high level of identified regulation, a low level of external regulation and a high level of satisfaction of the need for competence are associated with weekly PA (β = .28; −.19 and .24, respectively, p < .05).ConclusionSDT appears as an interesting theoretical framework to explore motivational antecedents of PA among obese adolescents.     

Relationships among goal orientations, motivational climate and flow in adolescent athletes: differences by gender

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the relationships among perceived motivational climate, individuals' goal orientations, and dispositional flow, with attention to possible gender differences. A sample of 413 young athletes, ages 12 to 16 years, completed the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire-2 (PMCSQ-2) and Perception of Success Questionnaire (POSQ), as well as the Dispositional Flow Scale. Task orientation was positively and significantly related to a perceived task-involving motivational climate and to the disposition to experience flow in the sport. Ego orientation was positively and significantly associated with a perceived ego-involving motivational climate and with dispositional flow. The perceptions of task-involving and ego-involving motivational climates were positively and significantly linked to general dispositional flow. Multiple regression analysis indicated that both task and ego goal orientations and perceived task- and ego-oriented climates predicted dispositional flow. Males displayed a stronger ego orientation, and were more likely to report that they participated in an ego-oriented climate, than did females. To the contrary, the females were more likely to perceive a task-oriented climate than did the males. No meaningful differences were found between males and females in general dispositional flow.     

A systematic review of the intrapersonal correlates of motivational climate perceptions in sport and physical activity

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to systematically review and appraise the achievement goal literature (1990–2014) with a view to identifying the intra-individual correlates of motivational climate perceptions, and to identify research gaps and avenues in need for further development.DesignSystematic review.MethodFour databases were searched, leading to 104 published studies being sampled (121 independent samples) that met inclusion criteria. Correlates were grouped into 17 categories and qualitative analysis focussed on identifying the associations predicted by achievement goal theory. Effect sizes were calculated using the Hunter-Schmidt method for correcting sampling error.ResultsA total population size of 34,156 (χ = 316.3, σ = 268.1) was sampled in the analysis, with the published mean ages ranging from 10.0 to 38.2 years (χ = 16.5 years, σ = 4.7). Perceptions of a task or mastery climate were consistently associated with a range of adaptive motivational outcomes including perceived competence, self-esteem, objective performance, intrinsic forms of motivational regulation, affective states, practice and competitive strategies and moral attitudes, and the experience of flow. Perceptions of an ego or performance climate were positively associated with extrinsic regulation and amotivation, negative affect, maladaptive strategy use, antisocial moral attitudes and perfectionism, but negatively associated to positive affect and feelings of autonomy and relatedness.ConclusionsAfter reviewing the sum total of research in this topic area, the authors appraise the options for future research to make meaningful progress in developing understanding of the social determination of motivation in sport and physical activity settings.     

Beyond positive and negative affect: Achievement goals and discrete emotions in the elementary physical education classroom

ObjectivesBased on the Achievement Goal perspective [Dweck, C. S., Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256–273; Nicholls, J. G. (1984). Achievement motivation: conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance. Psychological Review, 91, 328–346] and on Pekrun et al.'s [(2004). Beyond test anxiety: development and validation of the test emotions questionnaire (TEQ). Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 17, 287–316] model of discrete class-related emotions, this study investigated the relation of achievement goals to discrete emotions in the Physical Education (PE) class.DesignCross-sectional.MethodParticipants were 319 Greek upper elementary school students who responded to a set of questionnaires assessing their achievement goal orientation, perceived competence, and the class-related emotions they experienced in the PE classes.ResultsHierarchical regression analyses showed that, after controlling for perceived competence and gender differences, task goals were positively related to positive activating emotions and negatively related to negative emotions. Ego goals exhibited a mixed picture as they were positively associated with pride and all the negative emotions. Furthermore, the relations between ego goals and emotions were qualified by an ego by task goal and by an ego by perceived competence interaction suggesting that ego goals were especially linked to emotional maladjustment when task goals were low and when competence perceptions were high rather than low.ConclusionUnique associations between task and ego goals and specific emotions were found, rendering insightful the disentanglement of positive and negative emotions into its components. The pursuit of task goals might help to counteract the emotional burden associated with ego goal pursuit whereas feeling competent to outperform when one endorses ego goals might perhaps put extra pressure on the pupils and, hence, have negative implications for their emotional adjustment.