Cognitive flexibility and response inhibition in patients with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Generalized Anxiety Disorder

Background/ObjectiveThe main aim of this study was to analyze differences in inhibition and cognitive flexibility, taking into account some variables that may influence results (non verbal reasoning, depression, anxiety, intolerance of uncertainty, comorbidity, medication consumption).MethodThe participants were 95 adults aged 17-61 years old (M = 33.48, SD = 11.13), primary (most severe) Generalized Anxiety Disorder or Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and a healthy control group. Neuropsychological neasures were completed using computerized Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Stroop Color Word Test and Go/NoGo Task.ResultsClinical groups presented worse results in cognitive flexibility to the control group. The obsessive-compulsive group showed worse scores in flexibility than the generalized anxiety group, once non-verbal reasoning and tolerance to uncertainty were controlled. Comorbidity and medication use did not affect results in the obsessive compulsive group but did however influence the generalized anxiety group.ConclusionsCognitive flexibility could be included treatment in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder.     

Effect of acute aerobic exercise on cognitive performance: Role of cardiovascular fitness

ObjectivesTo determine whether fitness and cognitive task type moderate the relationship between acute exercise and cognition.MethodsThirty-six healthy college-aged adults completed a maximal graded exercise test and were categorized as low, moderate, or high in cardiovascular fitness. Participants then performed the Stroop Test prior to and after an acute bout of cycling exercise that consisted of a 5-min warm-up, 20 min of exercise at moderate intensity (65% VO_2max), and a 5-min cool-down.ResultsIndividuals of all fitness levels improved in cognitive performance following exercise. With regards to fitness, while no differences were observed on the congruent condition as a function of fitness, high fit individuals showed the longest response time on the Stroop incongruent condition.ConclusionThe beneficial relationship between performance of an acute bout of exercise and cognitive performance were observed for both cognitive task types and for participants of all fitness levels. However, a curvilinear relationship was observed between fitness and cognitive task type performance such that participants who were moderately fit performed the best on the incongruent trials, implying that maintaining fitness at a moderate level is associated with better executive function.     

The influence of functional social support on executive functioning in middle-aged African Americans

ABSTRACT

Social support has a positive influence on cognitive functioning and buffers cognitive decline in older adults. This study examined the relations between social support and executive functioning in middle-aged adults. A community-based sample of African Americans completed the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List, a measure of functions of social support, and two measures of executive functioning, the Stroop Color and Word Test and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). Hierarchical regression analyses were used to explore the hypothesis that different facets of perceived social support influence performance on measures of executive functioning. After controlling for age, gender, and education, social support facets including belonging support, selfesteem support, appraisal support, and tangible support were significant predictors of Stroop performance. In addition, tangible support significantly predicted WCST performance. These findings add to previous literature on social support and cognition; however, findings for middle-aged adults are unique and suggest that social support has a positive influence on some executive functions in African Americans prior to old age.     

The role of implicit and explicit components of exerciser self-schema in the prediction of exercise behaviour

ObjectivesThis study investigated implicit and explicit components of exerciser self-schema and their role in the prediction of exercise behaviour. In addition, the effect of implicit and explicit exerciser self-schema on intention to exercise was examined. Moderation and mediation effects involving exerciser self-schema, in both its implicit and explicit forms, were investigated.MethodMembers of fitness centres and other regular exercisers (N = 98, n_males = 37, n_females = 65) completed a written questionnaire to measure explicit exerciser self-schema and exercise intentions. An exercise Implicit Association Test (IAT) was also administered to measure implicit exerciser self-schema. Actual exercise occurrence was measured one week and two weeks following the initial testing phase.ResultsCorrelations indicated that implicit and explicit components of exerciser self-schema were related but distinct constructs. Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that high levels of both implicit and explicit exerciser self-schema improved absolute levels of exercise behaviour. Regression analyses examining the possibility that self-schema moderated the intention–behaviour relationship were not significant for implicit or explicit forms of self-schema. Forced entry regression analyses provided evidence for explicit exerciser self-schema being mediated by intention in its relationship with behaviour.ConclusionsIt is beneficial to consider both implicit and explicit exerciser self-schema when attempting to understand and predict exercise behaviour. Both implicit and explicit exercise self-schema have a direct effect on behaviour, although explicit self-schema also indirectly influences behaviour via intention to exercise.     

Effects of exercise self-regulation on subsequent eating self-regulation: Implications for depletion vs. improvement based on behavioral treatment foci

IntroductionAn improved understanding of individuals’ ability to self-regulate through barriers in the management of their weight-loss behaviors is important. Although self-regulation related to exercise might carry-over to increased eating-related self-regulation through the development of such skills, it also might be depleted because self-regulation is thought to be a limited resource. Additionally, mood might affect self-regulation change.ObjectiveThis field study aimed to determine if exercise-related self-regulation was associated with subsequent eating-related self-regulation, how treatment foci affected that relationship, and if mood change concurrently influenced self-regulation.MethodAn educational weight-loss treatment (n = 52) and a behaviorally based self-regulatory-focused treatment (n = 57) was administered to women with obesity via a community health-promotion setting. Baseline – Month 3 changes in their exercise self-regulation and overall negative mood, and Months 3–6 change in eating self-regulation, were assessed.ResultsImprovements were significantly greater in the self-regulation treatment group on exercise self-regulation, eating self-regulation, and mood. For the self-regulation group, there was a significant positive relationship between changes in exercise self-regulation and eating self-regulation, β = 0.27, p = 0.044. Conversely, the association of those variables was significant and inverse in the educational group, β = −0.29, p = 0.039. Reduction in negative mood was significantly related to increased exercise self-regulation, across groups, β = −0.32, p = 0.001.ConclusionWhen self-regulation was focused upon and rehearsed within an exercise context, its changes positively affected subsequent changes in eating self-regulation. However, when self-regulation was not targeted, self-regulation used for maintaining exercise depleted eating-focused self-regulation. Findings contributed to self-regulatory theory and had implications for the improvement of behavioral weight-loss treatments.     

Effect of mortality salience on implicit ageism: Implication of age stereotypes and sex

IntroductionThis research deals with the explanation of ageism by terror management theory (TMT) (Greenberg et al., 2002). Within this framework, there was an attempt to respond to two limits: a use of direct measurement procedures and a focus on the superordinate category.ObjectivesThe goal of the first study (n = 188) was to test the effect of mortality salience (MS) on implicit ageism by taking into account the social cognitive perspective on age stereotypes (SCPAS) (Hummert, 1999). The second study (n = 185) dealt with the impact of MS, the sex of the targets, and the sex of the participants on implicit ageism.ResultsIn the first study, results showed that in the control condition, 90-year-old targets were rated more negatively than 60-year-old targets, and participants in the MS condition made no distinction between the targets. In the second study, according to the double standard of aging (DSA) (Teuscher and Teuscher, 2006), elderly women were rated more negatively than elderly men in the control condition and consistent with TMT, MS increased ageism only when participants and targets were of the same sex.ConclusionThe findings suggest the following: when faced with their own death, young people do not differentiate old people; old people represent a threatening future self that is close to death. Results, limitations and implications for future research are also discussed.     

Predictors of aerobic physical activity and resistance training among Canadian adults with type 2 diabetes: An application of the Protection Motivation Theory

BackgroundIt is well established that both aerobic physical activity (PA) and resistance training are essential in the treatment and management of type 2 diabetes (T2D), but few studies have examined the determinants of both modes of PA in the same sample.PurposeThe main objective was to investigate the utility of the Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) in predicting aerobic PA and resistance training in a population sample of T2D adults.MethodsA total of 244 individuals completed self-report PMT constructs of vulnerability, severity, fear, response efficacy, self-efficacy and intention, and a 3-month follow-up that assessed aerobic PA and resistance training.ResultsPMT explained 19% (p < .001) and 20% (p < .001) of the variance respectively for aerobic PA and resistance training behaviour. Significant associations were found between self-efficacy (β = 0.45, p < .001) and gender (β = 0.15, p < .05) for aerobic PA, and self-efficacy (β = 0.48, p < .001) and age (β = 0.17, p < .05) for resistance training. PMT accounted for 43% (p < .001) and 56% (p < .001) of the variance respectively for aerobic PA and resistance training intentions. For aerobic PA, response efficacy (β = 0.14, p < .05) and self-efficacy (β = 0.59, p < .001) were significantly associated with intention, while response efficacy (β = 0.23, p < .001), self-efficacy (β = 0.64, p < .001) and age (β = 0.10, p < .05) were significantly related with resistance training intention.ConclusionsNone of the unique constructs of the PMT (i.e., perceived vulnerability, severity and fear) were significant with either aerobic and resistance training intention. These results may guide the development of effective PA interventions in people with T2D.     

Effects of whole body vibration on spasticity and lower extremity function in children with cerebral palsy

AimThe aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of whole body vibration (WBV) on lower extremity spasticity and ambulatory function in children with cerebral palsy (CP) with a complete crossover design.MethodSixteen participants aged 9.8(2.3) years received a 20-min WBV and a control condition in a counterbalanced order on two separate days. Change scores of each outcome variable were used to show the improvement.ResultsRepeated-measures analyses revealed significant differences in condition scores among variables including active range-of-motion (active ROM, increased), relaxation index (RI, increased), Modified Ashworth Scale (MAS, decreased), timed up-and-go (TUG, decreased), and Six Minute Walk Test (6MWT, increased). Significant differences were also found in time change scores for MAS and 6MWT. Correlation results revealed that TUG was significantly correlated with RI (r = −.512, p = .042), and 6MWT (r = −.700, p = .003).InterpretationThis study suggested that WBV intervention can control the spasticity, enhance ambulatory performance and increase active ROM. Along with previous results, data from this study revealed the potential use of WBV in clinical rehabilitation in children with CP. Future investigations should focus on finding the combination of treatment frequency and duration to achieve an ideal result.     

The effects of aerobic- versus strength-training on body image among young women with pre-existing body image concerns

This experiment compared the effects of aerobic-training (AT) versus strength-training (ST) on body image among young women with pre-existing body image concerns. Theory-based correlates of body image change were also examined. Participants were 46 women (M age = 21.5 years), randomly assigned to an 8-week AT or ST intervention consisting of supervised exercise 3 days/week. Multidimensional measures of body image were administered pre- and post-intervention, along with measures of physical fitness, perceived fitness, and exercise self-efficacy. Women in the AT condition reported greater reductions in social physique anxiety (p = .001) and tended to report greater improvements in appearance evaluation (p = .06) than women in the ST condition. Changes in perceived fatness, perceived aerobic endurance and aerobic self-efficacy were significantly correlated with body image change (ps < .003). Results provide direction for prescribing exercise to improve body image and advancing theory to account for the effects of exercise.     

Phonological complexity in school-aged children who stutter and exhibit a language disorder

PurposeThe Index of Phonological Complexity and the Word Complexity Measure are two measures of the phonological complexity of a word. Other phonological measures such as phonological neighborhood density have been used to compare stuttered versus fluent words. It appears that in preschoolers who stutter, the length and complexity of the utterance is more influential than the phonetic features of the stuttered word. The present hypothesis was that in school-age children who stutter, stuttered words would be more phonologically complex than fluent words, when the length and complexity of the utterance containing them is comparable. School-age speakers who stutter were hypothesized to differ from those with a concomitant language disorder.MethodsSixteen speakers, six females and ten males (M age = 12;3; Range = 7;7 to 19;5) available from an online database, were divided into eight who had a concomitant language disorder (S + LD) and eight age- and sex-matched speakers who did not (S-Only).ResultsWhen all stuttered content words were identified, S + LD speakers produced more repetitions, and S-Only speakers produced more inaudible sound prolongations. When stuttered content words were matched to fluent content words and when talker groups were combined, stuttered words were significantly (p ≤ 0.01) higher in both the Index of Phonological Complexity and the Word Complexity Measure and lower in density (“sparser”) than fluent words.ConclusionsResults corroborate those of previous researchers. Future research directions are suggested, such as cross-sectional designs to evaluate developmental patterns of phonological complexity and stuttering plus language disordered connections.Educational objectives: The reader will be able to: (a) Define and describe phonological complexity; (b) Define phonological neighborhood density and summarize the literature on the topic; (c) Describe the Index of Phonological Complexity (IPC) for a given word; (d) Describe the Word Complexity Measure (WCM) for a given word; (e) Summarize two findings from the current study and describe how each relates to studies of phonological complexity and fluency disorders.     

The personality-related implications of Stroop performance: Stress-contingent self-control in daily life

People with higher levels of executive control, relative to low levels, should be more capable of responding to the problems and stressors of their lives, yet we know very little concerning this lab-to-life interface. Two studies (total N = 254) sought to speak to questions of this type using the Stroop task, a classic measure of executive control. Individual differences in Stroop costs were assessed in the laboratory, following which the same people completed daily diary protocols for two weeks. Consistent with neurocognitive theories of executive control, both studies found that people capable of overriding the Stroop effect tended to recruit self-control in response to the stressful circumstances of their lives. By contrast, people with high Stroop costs did not exhibit this problem-focused form of recruitment. The findings extend our knowledge of individual differences in executive control and the manner in which they operate in daily life.     

Rumination and depression in Chinese university students: The mediating role of overgeneral autobiographical memory

ObjectiveIn this study, we examined the mediator effects of overgeneral autobiographical memory (OGM) on the relationship between rumination and depression in 323 Chinese university students.Method323 undergraduates completed the questionnaires measuring OGM (Autobiographical Memory Test), rumination (Ruminative Response Scale) and depression (Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale).ResultsResults using structural equation modeling showed that OGM partially-mediated the relationship between rumination and depression (χ² = 88.61, p < .01; RMSEA = .051; SRMR = .040; and CFI = .91). Bootstrap methods were used to assess the magnitude of the indirect effects. The results of the bootstrap estimation procedure and subsequent analyses indicated that the indirect effects of OGM on the relationship between rumination and depressive symptoms were significant.ConclusionThe results indicated that rumination and depression were partially mediated by OGM.     

Differential effects of differing intensities of acute exercise on speed and accuracy of cognition: A meta-analytical investigation

The primary purpose of this study was to examine, using meta-analytical techniques, the differential effects of differing intensities of acute exercise on speed and accuracy of cognition. Overall, exercise demonstrated a small, significant mean effect size (g = 0.14, p < 0.01) on cognition. Examination of the comparison between speed and accuracy dependent variables showed that speed accounted for most of the effect. For speed, moderate intensity exercise demonstrated a significantly larger mean effect size than those for low and high intensities. For speed of processing during moderate intensity exercise, central executive tasks showed a larger effect size than recall and alertness/attention tasks; and mean effect size for counterbalanced or randomized studies was significantly greater than for studies in which a pre-exercise followed by during or post-exercise protocol was used. There was no significant difference between mean effect sizes when testing took place post-exercise compared to during exercise for speed but accuracy studies demonstrated a significantly larger mean effect size post-exercise. It was concluded that increased arousal during moderate intensity exercise resulted in faster speed of processing. The very limited effect on accuracy may be due to the failure to choose tests which are complex enough to measure exercise-induced changes in accuracy of performance.     

Distributed attentional deficits in chronic methamphetamine abusers: Evidence from the Attentional Network Task (ANT)

ObjectiveThe goal of the present study was to examine distributed attentional functions in long-term but currently abstinent methamphetamine (MA) abusers using a task that measures attentional alertness, orienting, and conflict resolution.MethodsThirty currently abstinent MA abusers (1 month–5 years) and 22 healthy non-substance using adults were administered a multimodal version of the Attentional Network Task (ANT-I). In this task subjects identified the direction of a centrally presented arrow using a key press. Analyses examined the interaction between alerting tones, location cueing and congruency between the target arrows and flanking distractor stimuli.ResultsAll participants were faster when an auditory tone preceded the trial onset (p < 0.001), on trials in which a valid cue preceded the location of the target arrow (p < 0.001), and on congruent trials (i.e., when all display arrows faced in the same direction) (p < 0.001). Of primary interest was the finding that MA abusers were more influenced by the conflict between the peripheral arrows and the central target arrow (p = 0.009). There were also correlations between length of drug sobriety and executive function as well as between drug-induced psychiatric symptoms and alertness.ConclusionsThese results suggest that chronic MA abusers display cognitive deficits that may reflect a specific vulnerability to distraction on a task of executive function. These findings are consistent with other studies that have reported deficits in anterior attentional systems and top-down cognitive control.     

Validation française du questionnaire de dépendance de l’exercice physique (Exercise Dependence Questionnaire)

IntroductionThe Exercise Dependence Questionnaire (EDQ) conceptualises exercise dependence (ED) within both traditional biomedical and psychosocial perspectives. This tool is a valid and reliable multidimensional measure of ED.ObjectiveThe aim of the present study was to examine the internal consistency, test-retest reliability and factorial validity of the EDQ, in a French language version. In comparison to other existing scales like the EDS (Exercise Dependance Scale), the EDQ emphases not only the symptoms of addiction but also the motivations to exercise.MethodThe French language version of the EDQ was completed by 160 participants (60% male, students and practitioners leisures of sports activities). Participants completed the EDS and measures of exercise behavior.ResultsAdequate internal consistency and test-retest reliability for the scale were obtained. Confirmatory analysis (SPSS 16) supported a correlated eight-factor model, as suggested by Ogden, Veale and Summers (1997). The model fit indices were satisfying, RMSEA = 0.048; CFI = 0.90; IFI = 0.91; Chi²/dll = 1.38. This study provides evidence for the reliability and validity of the French language version of the EDQ. The convergent validity of this scale with the Exercise Dependence Scale was r = 0.52. These two scales appear more complementary than redundant. The EDS focuses more on the strict definition of the dependence whereas the EDQ adds a motivational perspective often link to eating disorders.ConclusionThe EDQ can be thus used in the clinical and studies framework on the exercise dependence.     

Acute caffeine consumption enhances the executive control of visual attention in habitual consumers

Recent work suggests that a dose of 200–400 mg caffeine can enhance both vigilance and the executive control of visual attention in individuals with low caffeine consumption profiles. The present study seeks to determine whether individuals with relatively high caffeine consumption profiles would show similar advantages. To this end, we examined the effects of four caffeine doses (0 mg, 100 mg, 200 mg, 400 mg) on low- and high-level visual attention in individuals with high consumption profiles (n = 36), in a double-blind study using a repeated measures design. Results from the Attention Network Test indicated that caffeine enhanced both vigilance and the executive control of visual attention, but only at the highest administered dose (400 mg). We demonstrate that in habitual consumers high doses of caffeine can produce beneficial changes in visual attention. These results carry implications for the theorized interactions between caffeine, adenosine and dopamine in brain regions mediating visual attention.     

The differences between cerebral dominance patterns in the speed and accuracy of information processing among university students

IntroductionThe subject of cerebral dominance has received great attention by researchers; however, there is a paucity of studies that have examined its relationship to information processing.ObjectiveThe current study aims to reveal the differences between the cerebral dominance patterns (left cerebral dominance, right cerebral dominance, integrated parallel cerebral dominance) in the speed and accuracy of information processing.MethodA sample of (182) volunteers university students, (mean age ± SD, 19.92 ± 2.76 years; range, 18–24 years; 68 male, 114 females). The Human Information processing survey was applied to the participants. Each subject was exposed to two elementary cognitive tasks (Stroop task and Eriksen flanker task). Each task included two experimental conditions: first, the congruent condition that reflects the automatic processing of information; second, the incongruent condition that reflects the controlled processing of information.ResultsThe results of the study revealed that there were no differences between the patterns of cerebral dominance in the speed and accuracy of information processing.ConclusionAlthough the relationship between cerebral dominance and information processing is not significant, we need more studies to examine this relationship in other samples and in other experimental conditions.     

Emotional intelligence and risky driving behaviour in adults

BackgroundRisky driving is considered a key predictive factor in road traffic accidents resulting in morbidity and mortality. Intra-individual emotional and personality factors have been shown to influence risk-taking behaviours among drivers. Despite this, there is limited research investigating the individual dimensions of these constructs and their relationship to risky driving behaviour (RDB). The current study therefore aimed to assess whether the individual dimensions of Emotional Intelligence (EI) were implicated in RDB.MethodsThe sample comprised 179 adults (55% male) aged between 18 and 64 years (M = 29.85, SD = 11.46) and who currently held a valid driver’s licence completed an online survey. Emotional Intelligence was assessed via self-report using the Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence Test (SUEIT), and RDB was measured using both the Brief Distracted Driving Scale (BDDS) and the Dula Dangerous Driving Index (DDDI).ResultsRegression analyses revealed that ‘Risky Driving’ was related to greater levels of Emotional Recognition and Expression and lesser Age [F_{(6, 172)} = 2.27, p < 0.05: R² = 7.3%], and the Negative Emotions sub-scale of DDDI, was significantly predicted by Emotional Control and Age [F_{(6, 172)} = 6.41, p < 0.05: R² = 18.3%]. A mediation model incorporating Age, Emotional Control scores and the Negative Emotions driving behaviour score indicated that a significant indirect effect of Age through Emotional Control (K² = 0.08, 95% CI [−0.02, −0.03]). (H [3] = 10.98, p = 0.012).ConclusionsLower scores on specific indices of EI are associated with increased rates of RDB, suggesting that poor emotional control may impede an individuals’ ability to make safe behavioural decisions when driving. The effect sizes for these models were small, however, and further research is needed to explore the contributory components in this association. Greater awareness of the role of emotional regulation and driving behaviours may be useful in preventing RDB in adults.     

Impact of the telephone motivational interviewing on the colorectal cancer screening participation. A randomized controlled study

IntroductionWhile high participation rates ensure the cost-effectiveness of colorectal cancer screening programs, it is well known that postal requests do not achieve acceptable levels of participation.ObjectiveThis randomized controlled study aimed to test the impact of individualized phone counseling to prompt people aged 50 to 74 to take a colorectal cancer test.MethodTwo phone strategies were compared. The first involved computer-aided individualized counseling while the second was based on motivational interviewing. A total of 49,972 people were randomly assigned to a control group (CG) and to the individualized counseling (IC) and motivational interviewing (MI) telephone groups.ResultsA simple call doubled the participation rate per protocol (19.2% > 9.2%; p < .001; r = .131; OR = 2.374), and tripled it when the interview was conducted (30.4% > 9.2%; p < .001; r = .219; OR = 4.321). In an intention-to-treat analysis, the benefit of calling by phone remained even higher than postal requests (10% > 9.2%; p < .01; r = .014; OR = 1.103). However, there was no impact of the type of interview on participation rates.ConclusionThe results are discussed for future research.