The Friendships of Young Children with Developmental Delays: A Longitudinal Analysis

This longitudinal study examined the social interactions of children with mild developmental (cognitive) delays with friends across the early childhood and early elementary years. Results revealed increases in many forms of social exchange with effect sizes in the moderate range, but no changes in sustained interactive play. Social interaction patterns, difficulties in identifying friends to participate in the study, and concerns evident in children's peer and friendship networks suggest the general absence of reciprocal friendships. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that children's limited peer-related social competence constrains all aspects of their development of friendships. Despite these problems, the potential benefits of interventions designed to support relationships at this stage of friendship development for children with delays were noted.     

Word Mapping and Executive Functioning in Young Monolingual and Bilingual Children

The effect of bilingualism on the cognitive skills of young children was investigated by comparing performance of 162 children who belonged to one of two age groups (approximately 3- and 4.5-year-olds) and one of three language groups on a series of tasks examining executive control and word mapping. The children were monolingual English speakers, monolingual French speakers, or bilinguals who spoke English and one of a large number of other languages. Monolinguals obtained higher scores than bilinguals on a receptive vocabulary test and were more likely to demonstrate the mutual exclusivity constraint, especially at the younger ages. However, bilinguals obtained higher scores than both groups of monolinguals on three tests of executive functioning: Luria's tapping task measuring response inhibition, the opposite worlds task requiring children to assign incongruent labels to a sequence of animal pictures, and reverse categorization in which children needed to reclassify a set of objects into incongruent categories after an initial classification. There were no differences between the groups in the attentional networks flanker task requiring executive control to ignore a misleading cue. This evidence for a bilingual advantage in aspects of executive functioning at an earlier age than previously reported is discussed in terms of the possibility that bilingual language production may not be the only source of these developmental effects.     

Behavior Problems in Young Children With or At Risk for Developmental Delay

We examined the prevalence of behavior problems and their relationship to child, parent, and family factors in 76 children with or at risk for developmental delay. Parents reported that 42% of the children had behavior problems. Child Behavior Checklist (CBC) scores revealed that 25% of the sample scored above the borderline cutoff. Although the total, externalizing, and internalizing mean CBC scores did not differ from the normative group (same-aged peers without developmental delay), each of the syndrome subscales was significantly higher in the study group. The Reiss Scales for Children's Dual Diagnosis revealed that, as compared to older children (4 years) with developmental delay, the study sample scored significantly lower on the total score and 8 of the 10 subscales. Increased CBC total scores were significantly related to dependency and management of the child, birth weight, gestational length, paternal illness, maternal depression, perceived personal burden of care, maternal escape-avoidance coping strategy, family disharmony, and financial stress. CBC total scores were significantly negatively correlated with being of a multiple birth, paternal education, maternal employment, two-parent family, family social support, and family income. Multiple regression analyses revealed that an empirically-derived combination of child, parent, and family variables accounted for 31% of the variance in CBC total scores. Our findings suggest that 2-year old children with or at-risk for developmental delay may already be showing signs of increased risk of behavior problems relative to peers without developmental delay. We identified several child, parent, and family variables that may help to pinpoint children at increased riskxs for psychopathology.     

Parent-Rated Anxiety Symptoms in Children with Pervasive Developmental Disorders: Frequency and Association with Core Autism Symptoms and Cognitive Functioning

Background In addition to the core symptoms, children with Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDD) often exhibit other problem behaviors such as aggression, hyperactivity, and anxiety, which can contribute to overall impairment and, therefore, become the focus of clinical attention. Limited data are available on the prevalence of anxiety in these children. We examined frequency and correlates of parent-rated anxiety symptoms in a large sample of children with PDD. Methods The goals of this study were to examine the frequency and correlates of parent-rated anxiety symptoms in a sample of 171 medication-free children with PDD who participated in two NIH-funded medication trials. Twenty items of the Child and Adolescent Symptom Inventory (CASI) were used to measure anxiety. Results Forty three percent of the total sample met screening cut-off criteria for at least one anxiety disorder. Higher levels of anxiety on the 20-item CASI scale were associated with higher IQ, the presence of functional language use, and with higher levels of stereotyped behaviors. In children with higher IQ, anxiety was also associated with greater impairment in social reciprocity. Conclusion Anxiety is common in PDD and warrants consideration in clinical evaluation and treatment planning. This study suggests that parent ratings could be a useful source of information about anxiety symptoms in this population. Some anxiety symptoms such as phobic and social anxiety may be closer to core symptoms of PDD. Further efforts to validate tools to ascertain anxiety are needed, as are studies to empirically test approaches to treat anxiety in PDD.     

Young Deceivers: Executive Functioning and Antisocial Lie‐telling in Preschool Aged Children

The present study examined the emergence of antisocial lie‐telling in very young children. Lie‐telling was studied in relation to executive functioning skills and children's abilities to identify both truths and lies. A total of 65 children (M_{age in months} = 31.75, SD = 1.87) participated in a modified temptation resistance paradigm (TRP; designed to elicit spontaneous lies). Executive functioning was measured through an inhibitory control task and a forward search planning task. The Truth/Lie Identification task was administered (Lyon, Carrick, & Quas, 2010 ) to measure children's abilities to accurately distinguish truths and lies. During the TRP, a total of 89.23% children peeked at the toy when a research assistant left the room, and of those children, 29.31% lied to the research assistant. Significant differences on executive functioning measures were found between lie‐tellers and confessors, as well as for the Truth/Lie Identification task. Lie‐tellers had higher scores on measures of inhibitory control and forward search planning. Lie‐tellers also had higher accuracy on the Truth/Lie Identification task than confessors. This study provides a unique contribution to the literature by examining 2.5‐year‐old children's emerging lie‐telling abilities, a relatively understudied age during which fledgling lie‐telling emerges. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Neuropsychological Functioning in Children with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been associated with deficits in the areas of verbal memory and learning, executive functioning, working memory, and attention in adults. Findings have been less consistent in the few studies examining neuropsychological functioning in childhood PTSD, which are often limited by comparing children with PTSD to children without trauma histories, making it unclear whether observed neuropsychological deficits are related to trauma exposure or to PTSD symptomatology. In an ethnically diverse sample of 62 children who witnessed intimate partner violence (n = 27 PTSD+ and 35 PTSD?), children with PTSD exhibited slower and less effective learning, heightened sensitivity to interference, and impaired effect of rehearsal on memory acquisition on the California Verbal Learning Test – Children's Version, a word list learning task. Both groups performed in the below average range on measures of executive functioning, attention, and intellectual ability.     

愿望采择发展水平对幼儿情感决策的影响

选取148名4岁儿童, 运用实验法考察了幼儿的愿望采择发展水平对其情感决策的影响。结果表明: (1) 幼儿的愿望采择水平对其情感决策具有显著影响。情境中他人愿望信息充足时, 幼儿会采择他人愿望并以此为线索为他人决策, 但对线索的利用程度受其愿望采择水平的制约。(2) 在无关于他人愿望信息提示的条件下, 4岁儿童为他人与为自己的情感决策不存在显著差异。(3) 4岁儿童能够采择他人的单一愿望, 但其冲突愿望采择能力还不成熟。     

Psychosocial Functioning in Children and Adolescents with Extreme Obesity

The aim of this study was to investigate the psychosocial differences among obese pediatric patients, particularly those who are "extremely obese" as compared to "obese." Information was collected for 249 subjects at a multidisciplinary treatment clinic for obese youth. A battery of measures was administered and demographic data and height/weight was obtained. The results showed positive correlations between degree of obesity, psychosocial functioning, and quality of life. Specifically, the "extremely obese" were significantly more depressed, more socially anxious, and had poorer quality of life than the "obese" group. Girls and Caucasians were more socially anxious than boys and African Americans, respectively. There is mounting evidence that children and adolescents who are extremely obese are most at risk for psychiatric and medical disorders. Thus, targeting this group for assessment and/or designing treatment options specific for "extremely obese" youth is critical for the successful management of this population.     

Neurobehavioral Functioning in Children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder

Neurobehavioral functioning of 50 Canadian children diagnosed with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) was evaluated. The aims of this study were to identify specific areas of weakness in neurobehavioral functioning, to examine whether neurobehavioral functioning was related to various predictor variables, and to determine which measures differentiated between children given a brain score of 2 (possible dysfunction) and 3 (probable dysfunction). Participants displayed difficulties with many aspects of intelligence, memory, executive functioning, and attention. Measures of Full scale and Verbal IQ, as well as memory for faces and numbers differentiated between children with a brain 2 and 3 ranking. An interesting pattern of strengths and weaknesses emerged as well as significant differences related to ethnic background, gender, and age. Aboriginal children and Caucasian children with FASD do not appear to show the same pattern of strengths and weaknesses in neurobehavioral functioning.     

Serving Families of Children with Developmental Disabilities

Abstract

Increased cultural diversity in the United States and elsewhere in the west requires that the school special services providers be aware of differences among identity groups, and sensitive to how these variations influence parents' perceptions of, and responses to, their child with a developmental disability. Because concern about diversity is relatively recent, the data base for action is virtually nonexistent. Nonetheless, there exists sufficient information to alert the special services provider to such factors as culture, religion, race, and social class in developing service programs. Understanding the values, beliefs, and experiences of families enables one to provide more effective services than does operating with the assumption that everyone views the world through essentially the same lens.     

Emotional Functioning in Children and Adolescents with Elevated Depressive Symptoms

Difficulties with emotion and its regulation are of central importance to the etiology and course of depression. The current study investigated these constructs in relation to childhood and adolescence by comparing the emotional functioning of 170 9- to 15-year-olds reporting high levels of depressive symptoms (HD) to a matched sample of 170 children and adolescents reporting low levels of depressive symptoms (LD). Compared to LD, HD participants reported significantly greater shame proneness, poorer functioning on emotion regulation competencies (emotional control, self-awareness and situational responsiveness), less healthy emotion regulation strategy use (less reappraisal and greater suppression), and lower levels of guilt proneness. Empathic concern did not differ between the two groups. The findings enhance current knowledge by providing a more comprehensive profile of the emotional difficulties experienced by children and adolescents with elevated depressive symptoms.     

Executive Functioning in Children and Adolescents with Major Depressive Disorder

The present investigation examined neurocognitive functioning, focusing on executive functioning (EF), in 39 children and adolescents with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and 24 healthy control subjects all ages 8 to 17 years. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition along with several measures of executive functioning including the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task, Trail Making Test, Controlled Oral Word Association Test, and the Stroop Color Word Test were administered. The neurocognitive profiles for the group of depressed children and adolescents were grossly intact as most scores on intellectual and EF measures fell within the average range and did not differ from the comparison group. Mental processing speed was decreased in the MDD versus normal control group and 27% of the depressed group performed below average on the Trail Making Test. This investigation provided a good base from which to compare future literature on EF in outpatients with early-onset MDD.     

Family Functioning and Coping Behaviors in Parents of Children with Autism

We analyzed family dynamics and coping behaviors of parents with a child with an autistic spectrum disorder. Previous research suggests that moderate levels of cohesion and adaptability are associated with higher levels of positive coping, and that the more coping strategies a family implements, the greater their satisfaction with family functioning. Using a family systems approach, the relationships among the familial variables of cohesion, adaptability, and social support were evaluated for their contributions to coping in the family unit. We also compared the responses of mothers and fathers. Surprisingly, for these parents of children with autism, those who rated their family as enmeshed implemented more positive coping strategies than did those from other cohesion styles. This finding suggests that the enmeshed style may be more adaptive for a family that encounters extreme challenges. Notably, mothers and fathers agreed on all variables except for perception of social support from family and friends. Mothers perceived more social support from family and friends. The results lead to several interesting suggestions for future research.     

Stress and Coping: A Comparison of Self-Report Measures of Functioning in Families of Young Children with Cerebral Palsy or No Medical Diagnosis

We analyzed data from 87 mothers of children ages 15 to 44 months with cerebral palsy (CP) or no diagnosis, who completed the Dyadic Adjustment Scale, Parenting Stress Index, Support Functions Scale, and Inventory of Social Support. Principal components analysis of the 15 subscales from the 5 measures revealed few cross-measure loadings. Mothers of children with CP (severe or mild) reported higher levels of parenting stress than did mothers of controls. However, cluster analysis of self-report measures yielded a 5-cluster solution, with no diagnostic group differences across clusters. That is, there were no overall differences in self-reported family functioning according to presence or severity of the child's disability. The results are discussed in terms of the organization of family systems and their relationship to child diagnosis. Clinical implications for assessing and working with families are noted.     

Factors Associated with Healthy and Impaired Social Functioning in Young Adolescents with ADHD

There is variability in the extent to which adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) exhibit social impairment, as the same diagnosis does not necessarily entail impairment in the same area(s) of functioning. The current study entailed a cross-sectional examination of enhancers to healthy social functioning and risk factors to parent- and self-rated social impairment in 324 middle school youth (ages 10–14 years) with ADHD. A series of binary logistic regression analyses were conducted to evaluate a risk-resilience model for social functioning, including testing compensatory (i.e., main; buffering) and protective (i.e., interaction) effects of enhancers in the presence of identified risk factors. Youth conduct problems, youth depression, and negative parenting emerged as risk factors. Self-rated social acceptance, activity participation (breadth and intensity), and parent involvement were enhancers of healthy social functioning. Of these enhancers, activity participation (breadth and intensity) and parent involvement showed buffering effects against the negative impact of the risk factors on social functioning. None of the enhancers displayed protective effects. The findings of this study enhance our understanding of the social functioning of young adolescents with ADHD, who comprise an understudied population relative to younger children with similar problems.     

Aspects of Communication in Families with Young Children

The subjects for this study were 16, non-pathological, four-person families, each with a child three or four years old and a child six or seven. Half the children were male and half female. The interactions studied involved both parents with one child and then with the other. The content of each remark was studied through a system of language-usage categories. This analysis indicated that older children sent and received a wider variety of messages than younger children did. Also, female children received a higher ratio of positive feedback to negative feedback from parents than males did. Who talks to whom, and who talks the most were also studied. These measures showed the formation of strong same-sex coalitions between parent and child. A number of the findings support a general systems interpretation of family interaction.     

Driving Behaviour in Young Adults with Developmental Co-ordination Disorder

Between 30 and 70% of children with developmental co-ordination disorder (DCD) will have persistent daily functioning difficulties in adulthood (Cousins and Smyth 2003). However, few DCD studies have focussed specifically on the stage of emerging adulthood. Driving is an important rite of passage which marks the start of independence from parents. Delay, difficulty or avoidance in learning to drive may all have profound social, practical and psychological implications for the young adult with DCD. The driving experiences of 38 students with DCD and 77 typically developing students aged 17–25 years were examined using a semi-structured questionnaire. Quantitative measures indicate that fewer adults with DCD learn to drive compared to controls and that they show continuing difficulties with distance estimation and parking. Qualitative comments give a valuable insight into the learning and driving experiences of adults with DCD. Differences in the driving behaviour of adults with DCD and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are discussed, as it is the need to consider guidance on driving skills when providing a package of care for young adults with DCD.     

Linking Family Functioning and Self-Discrepancies among Children with Functional Somatic Symptoms

Functional somatic symptoms (FSS), defined as physical symptoms of unknown pathology, are common among children and adolescents and are often associated with high levels of functional impairment. Self-discrepancy theory (SDT) suggests that discrepancies between one’s ideal, ought, or undesired self-states and one’s actual self-representation may lead to emotional distress. Among families with dysfunctional patterns, such emotional distress may result in FSS. The current study examined the relationship between familial patterns and children’s levels of self-discrepancies, among children with and without FSS. Twenty-three children diagnosed with FSS and 23 children with orthopedic problems (non-FSS) and their mothers participated in the study. Mothers and children completed the Child Somatization Inventory and the Integrated Self-Discrepancies Index. Mothers also completed the general scale of the Family Assessment Device. Higher levels of symptom intensity were found in the FSS group than in the non-FSS group. Dysfunctional familial patterns were significantly higher in the FSS group, and higher levels of discrepancies were reported in the FSS group, compared with the non-FSS group. No significant relationship was found in the FSS group between level of self-state discrepancies and level of family functioning. Higher levels of dysfunctional patterns are observed among families of children with FSS. Furthermore, children with FSS and their mothers hold relatively high levels of self-state discrepancies. However, these elevated discrepancies are not significantly related to familial dysfunctional patterns. Viewing self-state discrepancies together with family maladaptive patterns might help address both inter- and intrapersonal conflicts within the family and reduce children’s symptoms.     

Executive Functioning and Emotion Regulation in Children with and without ADHD

Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology - Difficulties with emotion regulation affect the majority of youth with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and predict greater...     

Impulsive Responses In Children with Conduct Disorder and Borderline Intellectual Functioning

The study is designed to investigate response inhibition in children with conduct disorder and borderline intellectual functioning. To this end, children are compared to a normal peer control group using the Alertness test. The test has two conditions. In one condition, children are instructed to push a response button after a visual “go” signal is presented on the screen. In a second condition the “go” signal is preceded by an auditory signal, telling the child that a target stimulus will occur soon. Compared to the control group, the group carrying the dual diagnosis made many preliminary responses (responses before the presentation of the “go” signal), especially in the condition with an auditory signal. This impulsive response style was controlled for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder characteristics of the children.