Beliefs of teachers versus non-teachers about people who stutter

PurposeAlthough prior research has investigated teachers’ beliefs about people who stutter (PWS), this work has not indicated how these beliefs compare with those of the general public or taken into account key demographic variables that may be related to these beliefs. The main purpose of this study was to evaluate whether beliefs about PWS in teachers are different from those in the general public. The second purpose of this study was to examine whether gender is related to beliefs about PWS for teachers, who are more frequently women.MethodsAnalyses were based on questionnaire responses regarding beliefs about PWS from 269 teachers and 1388 non-teachers in the United States. Due to their potential link to beliefs about PWS, familiarity with PWS and sociodemographic variables were included in the statistical model for this study.ResultsTeachers’ beliefs about PWS are no different than those of people in non-teaching professions. Findings also indicated that, regardless of whether respondents were teachers, women had more accurate beliefs about PWS than men. The statistical model tested indicated that beliefs about PWS were more accurate when the respondents were older, had more education, and had familiarity with a PWS.ConclusionIn the first study to compare teachers’ beliefs about PWS to the general public, findings indicated that teachers are no more accurate than the public in their beliefs about PWS. Associations found between these beliefs and several variables may indicate some promising mechanisms for improving beliefs, such as increased familiarity with individuals who stutter.Educational Objectives: Readers should be able to: (a) describe stuttering's potential effects on children's participation in the school setting; (b) identify actions teachers can take to improve the school experience of their students who stutter; (c) summarize findings regarding teachers’ beliefs about people who stutter (PWS); (d) identify key variables that are associated with beliefs about PWS.     

The social context as a determinant of teacher motivational strategies in physical education

ObjectivesThe purpose of the study was to provide an in-depth analysis of how the Physical Education (PE) teaching context influences teachers' motivational strategies towards students.DesignQualitative semi-structured interviewsMethodsUsing Self-determination theory (Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). Psychological Enquiry, 11, 227-268) as a guiding framework, semi-structured interviews of 22 PE teachers were examined using categorical content analysis.ResultsThe teachers perceived that an emphasis on student assessment and the time constraints associated with PE lessons often compelled them to use teaching strategies which conflicted with their beliefs about the most appropriate ways to motivate students. The teachers' own performance evaluations and pressure to conform to other teachers' methods also influenced the teachers' motivational strategies, but these influences were often congruent with their teaching beliefs. Additionally, the teachers discussed how perceived cultural norms associated with the teacher-student relationship impacted upon their chosen motivational strategies. These cultural norms were reported by different teachers as either in line, or in conflict with their teaching beliefs. Finally, the influence of the teachers' perceptions of their students helped produce strategies that were congruent with their beliefs, but often different to empirically suggested strategies.ConclusionsIt is important that teacher beliefs are targeted in education programs and that the teaching context aid in facilitating adaptive motivational strategies.     

Associations between heart rate,perceived heart rate,and anxiety during acute psychological stress

ABSTRACT

Background: Acute psychological stress elicits increases in heart rate (HR) and anxiety. Theories propose associations between HR, perceived HR, and anxiety during stress. However, anxiety is often measured as a unidimensional construct which limits a comprehensive understanding of these relationships.

Objectives: This research explored whether HR reactivity or perceived HR change was more closely associated with cognitive and somatic anxiety during acute psychological stress.

Design: Two laboratory-based studies were conducted.

Methods: In a single laboratory session, healthy male (N?=?71; study 1) and female (N?=?70; study 2) university students completed three laboratory psychological stress tasks (counterbalanced), each with a preceding baseline. Heart rate, perceived HR change, and cognitive and somatic anxiety intensity and interpretation of anxiety symptoms were assessed immediately following each task. Data were aggregated across tasks.

Results: Actual HR change was unrelated to anxiety intensity, but was associated with more debilitative interpretations of anxiety (study 2). Perceptions of HR change were consistently associated with greater intensity of cognitive (study 1) and somatic (study 1 and 2) anxiety.

Conclusions: Perceived HR rather than actual HR is more closely associated with anxiety intensity during psychological stress. The findings have implications for stress management and the clinical treatment of anxiety symptoms.     

Do teachers’ cultural beliefs matter for students’ school adaptation? A multilevel analysis of students’ academic achievement and psychological school adjustment

Based on two large-scale studies from Germany, we examined how different types of teachers’ cultural beliefs are related to immigrant students’ school adaptation. Specifically, we investigated the relationship of teachers' multicultural beliefs appreciating cultural diversity, their egalitarian beliefs focusing on all students' similarities and their assimilationist beliefs that immigrant students should conform to the mainstream context with immigrant students' academic achievement and psychological school adjustment as indicators of their school adaptation. We also explored all of these associations for non-immigrant students. Study 1 used data on the multicultural, egalitarian, and assimilationist beliefs of German language (N_Teachers?=?220) and mathematics (N_Teachers?=?245) teachers and on students’ achievement and feelings of helplessness in German language classes (N_Students?=?2606) and mathematics classes (N_Students?=?2851) as well as students’ school satisfaction. Study 2 analyzed data on teachers’ multicultural and egalitarian beliefs (N_Teachers?=?456) and students’ achievement and self-concept in mathematics (N_Students?=?4722). Overall, multilevel analyses revealed no relationship between teachers’ cultural beliefs and any of the indicators of immigrant and non-immigrant students’ school adaptation. These findings challenge the notion that overall, teachers’ cultural beliefs effectively translate into students’ school adaptation.

     

The Relationship among Metacognitions,Attentional Control,and State Anxiety

Abstract

The present study explored the relationship among metacognitions, attentional control, and state anxiety. A convenience sample of 142 undergraduate students completed the Meta-Cognitions Questionnaire-30, the Attentional Control Scale, and the State subscale of the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory 3 weeks before end-of-year examinations. A cross-sectional design was adopted, and data analysis consisted of correlation and hierarchical regression analyses. Correlation analyses showed that three dimensions of metacognition (negative beliefs about thoughts concerning uncontrollability and danger, cognitive confidence, and beliefs about the need to control thoughts) were positively correlated with state anxiety. These same metacognitions were also found to be negatively correlated with attention shifting and, with the exception of cognitive confidence, attention focusing. Both attention focusing and attention shifting were found to be negatively correlated with state anxiety. A hierarchical regression analysis showed that negative beliefs about thoughts concerning uncontrollability and danger and attention focusing independently predicted state anxiety. Overall, these findings support the hypotheses and are consistent with the metacognitive theory of psychological dysfunction in that they show that metacognitions (in the form of negative beliefs about thoughts concerning uncontrollability and danger) and executive control (in the form of attention-focusing) individually contribute to state anxiety. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

Changing teachers' beliefs regarding autonomy support and structure: The role of experienced psychological need satisfaction in teacher training

ObjectivesGrounded in Self-Determination Theory, this study examined whether physical education (PE) teachers' psychological need satisfaction experienced during continuous professional development (CPD) on need-supportive teaching predicted changes in their effectiveness and feasibility beliefs regarding the proposed teaching approach, as well as their intentions to apply this approach and subsequent changes in their self-reported in-class behaviors.MethodsPrior to the training, a sample of 80 PE teachers (57.5% men, Mage = 42.70 ± 10.15 years) reported on their effectiveness and feasibility beliefs regarding autonomy-supportive and structuring teaching strategies and their in-class application of these strategies. Immediately following the training, these beliefs were assessed again and participants reported on their psychological need satisfaction experienced during the training and their intentions to apply the proposed strategies. Finally, two weeks after the training, participants' self-reported in-class application of the teaching strategies was measured for the second time.ResultsPsychological need satisfaction experienced during the training related to a change in effectiveness and feasibility beliefs regarding autonomy support and structure, and to teachers' intentions to apply the proposed strategies as reported immediately after receiving the training. In addition, teachers' intentions related to a change in their self-reported in-class application of structuring, but not autonomy-supportive, teaching strategies.ConclusionsExperiences of psychological need satisfaction during CPD can help to increase the likelihood that teachers become more convinced about the effectiveness and feasibility of the proposed change and can produce greater intentions toward change, which may relate to actual (albeit) self-reported behavior change.     

The Role of Cardioprotective Avoidance Beliefs in Noncardiac Chest Pain and Associated Emergency Department Utilization

This study examined cardioprotective avoidance beliefs and general panic/agoraphobia variables among 45 Emergency Department patients with a primary complaint of noncardiac chest pain (NCCP) in the absence of coronary artery disease or other medical explanation. Cardioprotective beliefs about the dangerousness of work and physical activity were assessed with the Fear-Avoidance Beliefs Questionnaire (FABQ). Additional measures assessed complaints of cardiac distress and panic, anxiety sensitivity, panic-related beliefs, agoraphobic avoidance, and depressive symptoms. Hierarchical regression analysis indicated that cardiac distress symptoms are a function of panic symptoms and cardioprotective beliefs concerning both physical activity and work, with 62% of the total variance explained. The predictors also explained 57% of the variance in Emergency Department utilization, which was significantly related to cardiac distress symptoms, number of illnesses, and work-avoidance beliefs. Neither outcome was related to demographics, depression symptoms, general anxiety sensitivity, general panic cognitions, or agoraphobic avoidance. Results suggest that current behavioral understandings of NCCP might be advanced by further examination of cardiac-specific avoidance beliefs and behavior and the potential role these factors play in both symptom experience and medical utilization.     

Psychometric properties of the French version of the Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES-12f)

IntroductionSelf-efficacy appears to be an important resource for teachers assessed by the Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES; Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001).ObjectiveThe current study aims to explore psychometric properties the TSES short form translated into French, taking account of teachers’ experience with special needs students.MethodA sample of 283 primary and secondary teachers completed the scale.ResultsResults of confirmatory factor analyses confirm the tridimensional structure of the scale, which shows satisfactory psychometric properties.ConclusionThe usefulness of this scale is discussed considering the context of inclusive education reforms, as well as the potential protective effect of self-efficacy for teachers.     

The role of self-compassion during difficult economic times

Background and objectives: The negative effects of the financial crisis of 2007/2008 are still being felt today as seen in the relatively high levels of youth unemployment in many countries. As a result, many young people experience high stress levels when facing an uncertain and precarious job market.

Methods: Participants were 178 undergraduate students (79% female; M_age?=?20.00, SD?=?4.29) who were randomly assigned to read a news article that documented an uncertain financial future with limited job opportunities (the economic stress group), or an article that documented a tour of the Royal Canadian Mint (the control group). The role of self-compassion was explored in its relation to distress.

Results: Correlational and hierarchical regression analyses indicated that, in the economic stress group, self-compassion negatively predicted anxiety above and beyond self-esteem and familial support. In the control group, however, self-compassion did not negatively predict anxiety above and beyond self-esteem and familial support. Additionally, structural equation modeling indicated that self-compassion was directly associated with lower anxiety and indirectly related to anxiety through perceptions of financial threat.

Conclusions: These findings suggest that self-compassion may be an important resource that is associated with less distress during times of economic threat.     

Stress mindset in athletes: Investigating the relationships between beliefs,challenge and threat with psychological wellbeing

ObjectiveStress is omnipresent in daily life and can be acutely experienced by athletes due to additional circumstances such as deselection and injury. Trait beliefs athletes have about the stress they experience as well as the cognitive appraisals of this stress may be important in determining psychological wellbeing. The present study aimed to investigate the relationships between stress mindset, irrational beliefs, cognitive appraisals and psychological wellbeing in athletes using path analysis. Broadly speaking, it was hypothesised that stress mindset would relate negatively to depressive symptoms and positively to vitality through appraisals (i.e., challenge and threat), while irrational beliefs would relate to positively to depressive symptoms and negatively to vitality through appraisals.Methods415 athletes (227 females, Mage = 33.86 years, SD = 17.73) completed an online questionnaire pack assessing stress mindset, irrational beliefs, challenge and threat appraisals, depressive symptoms, and vitality. Using path analysis, the tested hypothesised model demonstrated an excellent fit to the data.ResultsFindings demonstrate that the relationships between stress mindset, irrational beliefs and psychological wellbeing is linked by direct and indirect effects of challenge and threat in athletes. Stress mindset was positively associated with challenge and negatively associated with threat, whilst self-depreciation and awfulizing demonstrated significant positive associations with threat. Self-depreciation was found to significantly relate to stress mindset, challenge, threat and depressive symptoms to a greater extent than the other types of irrational beliefs.ConclusionsFindings suggest practitioners should be aware of the role that stress mindset and other irrational beliefs have in potentially influencing athlete psychological wellbeing.     

The role of meaning in gastric cancer patients: relationships among meaning structures,coping, and psychological well-being

ABSTRACT

Background and Objectives: Research demonstrates that the experience of cancer invariably violates patients’ meaning structures, prompting them to use coping strategies to alleviate stress and enhance well-being. The current study aimed to examine the mediating effects of coping strategies in the relationship between global and situational meaning and psychological well-being in gastric cancer patients.

Design and Method: One hundred eighty-seven patients (96 women and 91 men) with gastric cancer completed questionnaires measuring meaning in life, changes of beliefs and goals, coping, and psychological well-being. Participants were between 27 and 82 years of age. They were diagnosed with gastric cancer from 1 to 3.2 years ago. Using Structural Equation Modeling, both the direct and indirect associations between meaning structures, coping, and psychological well-being were examined.

Results: Meaning in life exerted significant indirect effects on psychological well-being through three coping strategies: problem-, emotion-, and meaning-focused. The relationship between changes of beliefs and goals and psychological well-being was also mediated by coping.

Conclusions: Findings suggest that coping strategies are mediators in the relationship between global and situational meaning and psychological well-being. They also provide empirical evidence that in severe cancer-related stress conditions both meaning structures and coping strategies influence patients’ psychological well-being.     

Teachers' views and beliefs about bullying: Influences on classroom management strategies and students' coping with peer victimization

A multilevel design was used to test a model in which teachers' attitudes (beliefs) about bullying (e.g., it is normative; assertive children do not get bullied; children wouldn't be bullied if they avoided mean kids) were hypothesized to influence if and how they intervene in bullying interactions. In turn, it was hypothesized that teachers' strategies would influence how their students cope with victimization and the frequency of victimization reported by their students. Data were gathered on 34 2nd and 4th grade teachers and 363 ethnically-diverse students (188 boys; 175 girls; M age = 9 years 2 months). Results indicated that teachers were not likely to intervene if they viewed bullying as normative behavior, but were more likely to intervene if they held either assertion or avoidant beliefs. Moreover, avoidant beliefs were predictive of separating students which was then associated both directly and indirectly (via reduced revenge seeking) with lower levels of peer victimization. No grade differences emerged for teachers' views or management strategies; however, minor sex differences were detected which will be discussed.     

Boys Don’t Work? On the Psychological Benefits of Showing Low Effort in High School

Male students show less academic effort and lower academic achievement than do female students. The present study aimed to shed more light on the reasons for why male students show low academic effort despite the finding that this undermines their academic achievement. We explored whether students experience psychological benefits from showing low effort or “effortless” achievement in school and whether these benefits are greater for male than for female students. In two experimental vignette studies with independent samples of German ninth graders (N?=?210) and teachers (N?=?176), we systematically varied student targets’ gender, effort, and achievement and tested for effects on targets’ ascribed intelligence, popularity, likeability, masculinity, femininity, and gender-typicality. The “effortless” achiever was rated as more popular than students showing high effort. Teachers perceived the effortless achiever as the most intelligent target. Academic effort further increased students’ ratings of a low-achieving target’s likeability and students’ and teachers’ ratings of all targets’ femininity as well as decreased students’ ratings of all targets’ masculinity. Students and teachers perceived targets showing low (vs. high) effort as more similar to a typical boy, whereas teachers perceived targets showing high (vs. low) effort as more similar to a typical girl. Results indicate a need to understand the psychological benefits of low academic engagement, especially for male students, and to address the feminine stereotyping of (academic) effort.     

The durability of beneficial health effects associated with expressive writing

Abstract

This study examined the durability of benefits associated with expressive writing. Sixty-eight college undergraduates completed measures of physical and psychological health at the beginning of their first year and were then randomized to either an expressive writing or a control writing condition. Changes in physical health, psychological health (i.e., depression, stress, and anxiety), and academic performance were assessed two, four, and six months later. Findings indicated that participants assigned to the expressive writing condition reported less depression symptom severity at the two-month follow-up assessment relative to participants assigned to the control condition. However, these symptom reductions were not observed at any of the subsequent follow-up assessments. No significant changes were reported for physical health complaints, stress symptoms, anxiety symptoms, or academic performance. These findings suggest that, among first-year college students, expressive writing may provide some short-term relief for certain symptoms.     

Gender and mathematics anxiety: The role of math-related experiences and opinions

Abstract

Research has indicated that women may be particularly prone to experiencing mathematics anxiety and, to account for this, the sex-role socialization hypothesis posits that women are more math anxious because they have had less experience with mathematics and have more negative opinions regarding mathematics. In contrast, the math experiences hypothesis suggests that math anxiety is not truly a gender-related phenomenon, but rather is due to poor mathematical preparation, regardless of gender. The present study pitted the “sex-role” hypothesis against the “math experience” hypothesis in an examination of the relation between gender and math anxiety. One hundred and seventy-one university students completed a measure of math anxiety and a series of questions regarding their math marks, opinions, and experiences throughout their educational history. The findings clearly supported the math experience hypothesis of math anxiety, for differences in math marks, opinions, and experiences were found between non-math-anxious, moderately math-anxious, and highly math-anxious students. The few gender differences that were found indicated that the female students frequently reported higher math marks than those reported by male students. We suggest that the relation between gender and mathematics anxiety may be accounted for by gender-linked reporting biases. The limitations of the study are addressed and suggestions for future research are made.     

Analyses of mental contamination: Part II,individual differences

Recent research on mental contamination (internal, psychological feelings of dirtiness) has focused primarily on examining the experimental variables necessary to provoke contamination-related thoughts, feelings and behaviour; yet, relatively little is known regarding the individual differences among participants' mental contamination responses to these situational and experimental characteristics. The purpose of this study was to determine whether variables associated with symptoms, beliefs and appraisals could predict the experience of mental contamination after an established provocation. Female undergraduate students (n = 70 from Part I of this study; Elliott & Radomsky, 2009), completed a series of questionnaires then listened to an audio recording and imagined that they were receiving a forced, non-consensual kiss from a man described as moral or immoral. Participants indicated the presence and degree of mental contamination and appraisals of the man and act, then completed a behavioural task for which spontaneous washing was recorded. Results indicated that, although symptoms of physical contamination were able to predict feelings of mental contamination, appraisal variables emerged as unique predictors of feelings of mental contamination. Results are discussed in terms of cognitive-behavioural conceptualizations of and treatments for contamination fears.     

Mediators of affective responses to acute exercise among women with high social physique anxiety

ObjectivesThis study represents ancillary analyses of data published by Raedeke, Focht, and Scales [2007. Social environmental factors and psychological responses to acute exercise for socially physique anxious females. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8, 463–487] and examines whether enjoyment or task self-efficacy mediated the relationship between exercise environment (health- or appearance-oriented class atmosphere) and affective responses/future intentions or had independent associations with those outcomes.Design/MethodsAs a context in which to examine mediational relationships, volunteer female college students (N = 99) with high social physique anxiety scores were randomly assigned to a health- or appearance-oriented condition. They completed affect and task self-efficacy measures pre- and post-exercise. Enjoyment and intentions were assessed post-exercise.Results/ConclusionsEnjoyment mediated the relationship of class atmosphere on overall feeling as well as revitalization and exhaustion and partially mediated the relationship of class orientation with engagement and future intentions. Although task self-efficacy was an independent predictor of affective responses and intentions, it did not significantly mediate the effect of the social environment on these outcomes.     

Effect of the SNS-Based Physical Activity-Related Psychological Intervention on Physical Activity and Psychological Constructs among Inactive University Students

Background/ObjectiveThe current study investigated the effects of the physical activity-related psychological intervention via social network service (SNS) on physical activity and psychological constructs in inactive university students.MethodThirty inactive university students participated in the 12-week intervention and received the physical activity-related psychological strategy via SNS. The physical activity levels, stages of physical activity, self-efficacy, pros, and cons were measured at the three time points (baseline, after 6 weeks, and after 12 weeks). Data analyses included frequency analysis, McNemar chi-square (χ²) test, and a repeated measures ANOVA were conducted.ResultsResults indicated that the number of inactive university students gradually decreased across the three different time points, and that a total physical activity of inactive university students significantly increased over the 12-week intervention. In addition, pros and self-efficacy significantly increased but cons gradually decreased over the intervention.ConclusionsThe current study suggests that the SNS-based physical activity-related psychological strategies have positive effects on promoting physical activity and its related psychological constructs for inactive university students.     

Teacher beliefs,teacher characteristics,and school contextual factors: What are the relationships?

Background. There is a plethora of research around student beliefs and their contribution to student outcomes. However, there is less research in relation to teacher beliefs. Teacher factors are important to consider since beliefs mould thoughts and resultant instructional behaviours that, in turn, can contribute to student outcomes. Aims. The purpose of this research was to explore relationships between the teacher characteristics of gender and teaching experience, school contextual variables (socio‐economic level of school and class level), and three teacher socio‐psychological variables: class level teacher expectations, teacher efficacy, and teacher goal orientation. Sample. The participants were 68 male and female teachers with varying experience, from schools in a variety of socio‐economic areas and from rural and urban locations within New Zealand. Method. Teachers completed a questionnaire containing items related to teacher efficacy and goal orientation in reading. They also completed a teacher expectation survey. Reading achievement data were collected on students. Interrelationships were explored between teacher socio‐psychological beliefs and the teacher and school factors included in the study. Results. Mastery‐oriented beliefs predicted teacher efficacy for student engagement and classroom management. The socio‐economic level of the school and teacher gender predicted teacher efficacy for engagement, classroom management, instructional strategies, and a mastery goal orientation. Being male predicted a performance goal orientation. Conclusions. Teacher beliefs, teacher characteristics, and school contextual variables can result in differences in teacher instructional practices and differing classroom climates. Further investigation of these variables is important since differences in teachers contribute to differences in student outcomes.     

British Olympic hopefuls: The antecedents and consequences of implicit ability beliefs in elite track and field athletes

ObjectivesThis study provided an in-depth examination of the implicit ability beliefs held by elite British track and field athletes, including the antecedents and consequences of these beliefs.Design and MethodsA qualitative design was employed involving semi-structured interviews with 4 Olympic hopefuls in the sport of track and field athletics. Thematic analysis was utilised to interpret the results of the study, involving a combination of inductive and deductive approaches.ResultsThe core components of ability beliefs included beliefs that ability is stable, ability is malleable, and that it is possible to build on natural ability. A variety of personal, social and environmental antecedents appeared to influence the athletes' ability beliefs. The consequences of implicit beliefs encompassed three major themes, which were achievement motivation, setbacks and attributions for success and failure.ConclusionsThe results from the analysis indicated that the athletes' implicit beliefs were very specific, as their beliefs about ability appeared to underpin sport-specific performance. The belief that ability was malleable was universal amongst the athletes and this may be related to their age, experience, high perceived ability and the high level at which they compete. However, the athletes believed that although natural ability is useful, talent is only a small part of the equation as learning, improving and working hard are all necessary for success at the highest level.