College students' perceptions of advances in HIV treatment and the need for safer sex practices

Advances in the treatment of HIV disease may result in reduced concern about the severity of HIV and the need to practice safer sex. A pilot study was conducted among 258 college students to assess effects of the new treatments on perceptions of HIV and the need for safer sex practices. In a sample of minority heterosexual students 155 (60%) had heard about the new HIV treatments, and perceptions of the new treatments were analyzed for only these students. A small proportion of the 155 students (17.5%) believed that the threat of AIDS is less serious than in the past, and 21% indicated that they practiced safer sex less often since new treatments were introduced. Students with high knowledge of AIDS risk were more likely to report reduced concern about HIV and indicated that there was less need to practice safer sex. Prevention programs should emphasize that the threat of HIV remains serious, and continuing to practice safer sex is important. Further research should focus on factors influencing reduced concern.     

Gender as an Obstacle in HIV/AIDS Prevention: Considerations for the Development of HIV/AIDS Prevention Efforts for Male-to-Female Transgenders

SUMMARY

Social discourses regarding gender are responsible for molding people's cognitions, perceptions, behaviors, and interactions with others. Approaching and understanding gender socialization is an important strategy that must be included in the development of HIV/AIDS prevention intervention efforts targeting male-to-female (MTF) transgender people.

This paper represents an effort to identify the influence of gender construction among a group of MTF transgenders in Puerto Rico. Using combined methodology, authors examined results from a questionnaire and in-depth interviews with a convenience sample of MTF transgenders living in the San Juan metropolitan area.

Quantitative analysis demonstrated that this sample is composed of young, unemployed, and undereducated population. Many participated in the sex industry. Participants reported need for basic health and social services and alienation from social networks. Qualitative analysis confirmed their traditional social construction of the “feminine.” Their discourse underlines their need to reinforce their identity by the construction of a female self which undermines their possibilities for negotiating safer sex, as happens to most females in Latino societies.

Social vulnerability, institutional exclusion, and gender construction issues are obstacles for the HIV prevention efforts among these communities.     

Diminished heart rate complexity in adolescent girls: a sign of vulnerability to anxiety disorders?

Background and Objectives: Diminished heart rate variability has been found to be associated with high anxiety symptomatology. Since adolescence is the period of onset for many anxiety disorders, this study aimed to determine sex- and anxiety-related differences in heart rate variability and complexity in adolescents.

Methods: We created four groups according to sex and anxiety symptomatology: high-anxiety girls (n?=?24) and boys (n?=?25), and low-anxiety girls (n?=?22) and boys (n?=?24) and recorded their cardiac function while they performed regular school activities. A series of two-way (sex and anxiety) MANOVAs were performed on time domain variability, frequency domain variability, and non-linear complexity.

Results: We obtained no multivariate interaction effects between sex and anxiety, but highly anxious participants had lower heart rate variability than the low-anxiety group. Regarding sex, girls showed lower heart rate variability and complexity than boys.

Conclusions: The results suggest that adolescent girls have a less flexible cardiac system that could be a marker of the girls’ vulnerability to developing anxiety disorders.     

Predictors of Intention to Take Precautions Against AIDS Among Black College Students1

This research explored the relationship between behavioral intentions to engage in AIDS-risky sexual practices and a variety of variables that are theoretically and/or popularly assumed to be important factors in AIDS prevention. These variables included beliefs and knowledge about AIDS, fear of AIDS, perceived vulnerability of self and others, as well as probability that self and others on one's campus would contract AIDS, perceived efficacy to control exposure to AIDS, self-esteem, general locus of control, and past behavioral reaction to the threat of AIDS. General intention to “do something to protect oneself against AIDS,” and specific behavioral intention to use condoms in vaginal sex were measured and considered as possible proxies for future behavior. Data were collected from 124 black respondents in a southeastern university. In a series of multiple regression analyses, each of these measures of behavioral intentions was “predicted” from the other variables. Results showed that situational efficacy (to protect oneself from AIDS) was the best predictor of general intention, followed by reports of past behavioral changes as a result of the AIDS epidemic, and by knowledge. Proximal fear of AIDS was a negative predictor. For specific intentions, a specific belief about inconvenience in condom use was the best predictor, followed by past behavioral change, followed by knowledge. Normative beliefs, a belief that condoms would prevent disease, and distant threat of AIDS were also significant predictors. Theoretical and policy implications of the findings are discussed.     

Attachment Style,Assertive Communication,and Safer-Sex Behavior1

This research tested the proposition that the effect of attachment security on safer-sex practice may be mediated by communication patterns. One hundred eighty-five undergraduate students completed questionnaire measures of attachment, assertiveness, and attitudes to communication about AIDS. Eight weeks later, they reported on their practice of safer sex in the period since the first testing session. Hierarchical regressions showed that at Step I, anxiety about relationships (a measure of insecure attachment) was associated with less safer-sex practice, for all outcome measures. Attitudes to communication about AIDS added to the prediction of general reports of safer-sex practice: in line with the mediational model, anxiety about relationships became unimportant as a predictor when communication variables were included. Communication variables failed to add to the prediction of safer sex on the most recent encounter, and both anxiety about relationships and attitudes to communication about AIDS predicted condom use. Some gender differences in patterns of prediction were noted. The results are discussed in terms of attachment style and its links with the negotiation of sexual practice and relationship issues.     

Application of a modified health belief model to hiv preventive behavioral intentions among gay and bisexual men

Abstract

The utility of a modified health belief model (Janz and Becker, 1984) for predicting the intention to use condoms was tested in a study among gay and bisexual men. The model explained a reasonable amount of variance. It was found that younger men's decision to have safe sex was guided by factors other than those that influenced older men. Among younger men, the intention to use a condom was positively related to the relative number of persons with AIDS in their social environment (cues to action) and to the perceived benefits of HIV preventive behavior. Among older men, this behavioral intention was much more determined by their perception of the prevalence of HIV and by their perception of their vulnerability to HIV infection. These findings are important because they may partly explain the recent increase in AIDS-risk behavior among young gay and bisexual men. The discussion focuses on these findings and on the implications for interventions aimed at promoting safe sex.     

Using the Theory of Gender and Power to Examine Experiences of Partner Violence,Sexual Negotiation,and Risk of HIV/AIDS Among Economically Disadvantaged Women in Southern India

This article uses the Theory of Gender and Power to examine women's vulnerability to HIV/AIDS in order to: understand the vulnerability of female sex workers/poor women due to poverty and lack of educational resources; explore women's vulnerability in the context of client/partner violence, alcohol use, male partner's high-risk behaviors, and women's lack of control in their intimate relationships; and explore the role of traditional heterosexual gender norms in the outcomes of sexual negotiation. Ethnographic data were collected from 32 women and 38 men in India as part of an ongoing National Institute of Mental Health study. Results highlighted women's vulnerability to HIV/AIDS stemming from partner violence, alcohol use, poverty, dangers of sex work environments, and tacit acceptance of cultural/gender norms.     

Reality testing and self-reported AIDS self-care behavior.

This investigation examined the relationship between reality testing and AIDS self-care behavior for 509 urban college students. It was hypothesized that reality testing may become impaired in sexual interactions that carry the risk of HIV infection, leading to imperfect adoption of safer sex practices. Reality testing, measured by the Bell Object Relations and Reality Testing Inventory, was significantly related to AIDS knowledge as measured by the AIDS Prevention Survey of Thomas and not significantly related to self-reported safer sex behavior, measured by Bassman's HIV Infection Prevention Scale.     

The role of risk perception and efficacy cognitions in the prediction of HIV-related preventive behavior and condom use

The salience of the Protection Motivation Theory to HIV preventive behavior was investigated in a sample of 468 heterosexual men 20-45 years of age recruited in Germany and at vacation spots in Spain. This theory conceptualizes self-protective behaviors as a function of the severity of the threat, perceived personal vulnerability to this threat, the availability of coping responses, and the effectiveness of these responses. Cognitive variables measured included perceived severity of the threat of AIDS, sexual self-efficacy expectancy, self-efficacy expectations in terms of sexual communication skills, response efficacy, and attitude toward condom use. On a scale of 1 (low) to 6 (high), perceived severity of the AIDS threat averaged 5.3, individual susceptibility ratings averaged 3.5, and susceptibility of peers had a mean of 4.9. Although 33% of respondents had made behavioral changes in response to the AIDS epidemic, only 15% always used condoms while 12% used them occasionally. Self-efficacy expectancy with regard to assertiveness and use of preventive measures emerged as the most significant predictor of HIV-related behaviors. The causal analyses indicated that high communicative self-efficacy expectancy is associated with high-risk sexual behaviors, while self-efficacy expectancy regarding assertiveness and the use of preventive measures promotes risk reduction. These associations were strongest in men over 26 years of age, singles, and tourists. These findings suggest a need for interventions for couples such as assertiveness training and guidance on communicating about sex and AIDS. Also demonstrated was the need for AIDS education programs to identify where participants are in terms of perceiving the threat of and coping with the AIDS epidemic and promote conditions that will help people advance to the next stage.     

The paradox of trust for male couples: When risking is a part of loving

Among gay men, there is evidence to suggest that serious, committed male couples practice especially risky sex. To understand the reasons why male couples might take such risks, 92 participants (46 long-term couples) were asked to complete a survey in which they independently indicated their sexual practices, why they engaged in them, and their attitudes toward relationships. Three sets of findings suggest a paradoxical relationship between emotional intimacy and sexual risk: (1) love, trust, and commitment were used more often to explain riskier than safer sex; (2) those more dependent upon their relationships and who desired a stable and lasting relationship practiced riskier sex; and (3) requesting safer sex had negative connotations (e.g., suspicion of extrarelationship sexual contacts). Of those who practiced safer sex (i.e., protected anal sex), 94% indicated that they did so because of their “fear of AIDS.” Implications of these findings for developing HIV interventions for male couples are discussed.     

Correlates of spirituality and well-being in a community sample of people living with HIV disease

While the past several years have witnessed an increase in the amount of research examining the spiritual perspectives of people living with HIV/AIDS, this literature is still insufficient to guide the conceptualization and development of spiritually based interventions to improve the life quality of people living with HIV illness. The present study assessed a community sample of 275 persons living with HIV disease to examine relationships among their spirituality, quality of life, perceptions of social support, and coping and adjustment efforts. This study found relationships between social support, active problem solving, life satisfaction, and gender and race with higher levels of spirituality among people living with HIV/AIDS. Mental health providers may need to routinely include assessments of spirituality and religious practices. Caregivers, faith communities, and mental health providers will need to assist in developing supportive environments that enhance the spiritual life and social well-being of people living with HIV infection. Additionally, caregiver training programs will need to focus on spiritual practices as a means of establishing a support system that increases the psychosocial well-being of people living with HIV/AIDS.     

Attentional biases to threat in social anxiety disorder: time to focus our attention elsewhere?

Background: Cognitive models propose that attentional biases to threat contribute to the maintenance of social anxiety disorder (SAD). However, the specific characteristics of such biases are still object to debate.

Objectives: The current study aimed to disentangle effects of trait and state social anxiety on attention allocation towards social stimuli.

Methods: Participants with SAD (n?=?67) and healthy controls (n?=?62) completed three visual search tasks while their eye movements were recorded. Half of the participants in each group were randomly assigned to a state anxiety induction.

Results: Contrary to our predictions, neither trait nor state social anxiety was associated with a facilitated attention to or a delayed disengagement from threat. However, participants with SAD did show reduced fixation durations for threatening stimuli, indicating an avoidance of threat. Induction of state anxiety led to an increased distractibility by threat.

Conclusions: We suggest that attention allocation in SAD is characterized by an avoidant rather than a vigilant attentional bias. Accordingly, our results contradict previous results that associate SAD with facilitated attention to threat and existing approaches to modify attentional biases, that aim to decrease attention towards threatening stimuli.     

Social context,sexual practices,and risks for HIV transmission among men who have sex with men: The south beach health survey

In a population-based sample of 193 men who had sex with men in South Beach, Miami-Dade County, Florida, two indicators of social context—choice of sexual relationships and perceived HIV-infection status—were used to analyze residents who engaged in certain sexual practices with their partners. The vast majority (88.6%) of respondents reported engagement in anal sex during the previous 12 months; 20.2% reported unprotected anal intercourse (UAI) with ejaculation with any partner and 12.4% reported UAI with ejaculation with one or more casual partners. Findings supported the hypothesis that primary partner relationships and perceived HIV status are important variables for understanding engagement in UAI with ejaculation. Men who engaged in such behaviors with casual partners were more likely to have negative attitudes towards condoms, report difficulty communicating desires for safer sex, disagree with the belief that AIDS is fatal, and be intoxicated during anal intercourse. Men who reported engaging in anal intercourse, but who never shared unprotected ejaculations, were most likely to be unknowingly infected with HIV, suggesting that many men may become infected while following what they believe to be “safer sex practices.” In designing effective interventions, public health authorities need to take into account socially embedded risk-negotiating practices.     

Exams? Why worry? Interpreting anxiety as facilitative and stress appraisals

Background and Objectives: The present study examined why people differ in how they appraise the same stressful situation (an approaching exam). Design: We explored whether interpreting anxiety as a facilitative emotion can affect the type of stress appraisal people make. Method: One hundred and three undergraduate students took part in this study, which lasted for 10 days (leading up to an exam). The students completed a daily self-reported evaluation of anxiety, emotional exhaustion, and stress experienced. Results: The findings suggest a process by which a stressful time can be experienced as motivating rather than threatening or emotionally exhausting. For example, interpreting anxiety as facilitative moderated the relationship between anxiety and stress appraisals. When interpreting their anxiety as facilitative, individuals showed a higher tendency to make challenge stress appraisals and a lower tendency to appraising the stressor as a threat. These differences were especially visible with high levels of anxiety. Furthermore, interpreting anxiety as facilitative was negatively associated with emotional exhaustion, but positively associated with the academic performance. Conclusions: These findings suggest an explanation why people differ in how they appraise the same stressor: how people interpret their anxiety may to a large part affect how they appraise difficult events and situations.     

BRIEF REPORT Interpretation of death‐relevant ambiguous stimuli as a function of death threat

According to G.A. Kelly's (1955) Personal Construct Theory, people are threatened by personal death to the extent that their conceptions of death are inconsistent with their conceptions of their present selves. As an individual difference factor, death threat predicts how people respond to death‐relevant situations and stimuli. To test the hypothesis that high death‐threat (relative to low death‐threat) persons will engage in greater denial when assigning meaning to ambiguous stimuli, college students viewed inkblots and chose between a nondeath‐relevant interpretation and a death‐relevant interpretation. As hypothesised, high death‐threat participants endorsed fewer death‐relevant interpretations than did low death‐threat participants. Self‐reported conscious fear of death did not predict this avoidance. Results are discussed in the light of historical and current work on psychological responses to death.     

Body Dissatisfaction and Mental Health Across Ethnic/Racial and Immigrant Groups: Implications for Marriage and Family Therapists

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this effort is to broaden the scope with which body dissatisfaction (BD) is viewed to inform the practices of MFTs. Associations between college students' BD and measures of depression, anxiety, self-esteem, and body image were tested using mean-level comparisons, path analysis, and multi-group tests by sex, across ethnic/racial groups, and across immigration status. Data were collected from N = 10,573 youth. There was evidence of significant mean level differences, and BD predicted internalizing symptoms while multi-group tests were largely invariant suggesting a more universal impact than dominant theoretical explanations (i.e. Objectification theory) posit.     

Avoidance temperament and social-evaluative threat in college students' math performance: a mediation model of math and test anxiety

Background and Objectives: Standardized testing has become a common form of student evaluation with high stakes, and limited research exists on understanding the roles of students' personality traits and social-evaluative threat on their academic performance. This study examined the roles of avoidance temperament (i.e., fear and behavioral inhibition) and evaluative threat (i.e., fear of failure and being viewed as unintelligent) in standardized math test and course grades in college students. Design and Methods: Undergraduate students (N = 184) from a large public university were assessed on temperamental fear and behavioral inhibition. They were then given 15 minutes to complete a standardized math test. After the test, students provided data on evaluative threat and their math performance (scores on standardized college entrance exam and average grades in college math courses). Results: Results indicate that avoidance temperament was linked to social-evaluative threat and low standardized math test scores. Furthermore, evaluative threat mediated the influence of avoidance temperament on both types of math performance. Conclusions: Results have educational and clinical implications, particularly for students at risk for test anxiety and underperformance. Interventions targeting emotion regulation and stress management skills may help individuals reduce their math and test anxieties.     

Achieving Safety: Safer Sex, Communication, and Desire among Young Gay Men

Conceptualizations of safer sex practices among young gay men (YGM) are frequently structured around communication between partners and the subsequent utilization or absence of condoms in a sexual encounter. Drawing on a sample of 34 in-depth interviews with YGM, ages 18 to 24, we explore the ways in which conceptualizations and definitions of safer sex are discussed and enacted. Placing attention on their safer sex practices, we analyze the conversations that do and do not occur among YGM and their partners, including the strategies (e.g., negotiated safety, condom communication and negotiation) that are commonly perceived as most useful by YGM. We provide recommendations regarding how to craft safer sex messages for YGM by considering their competing demands.     

“You throw like a girl:” The effect of stereotype threat on women's athletic performance and gender stereotypes

Objectives“Stereotype threat” occurs when people perform worse at a task due to the pressure of a negative stereotype of their group's performance. We examined whether female athletes may underperform at an athletic task if prompted to think about gender stereotypes of athleticism. We also explored whether gender stereotypes regarding general athletic ability would be affected by a standard stereotype threat induction.DesignWe used a 2 (participant gender) × 2 (stereotype threat manipulation) factorial design with task performance and gender stereotypes of athleticism as dependent measures.MethodFemale and male tennis and basketball college student athletes performed two athletic tasks relevant to their sport: a difficult concentration task and an easier speed task. Participants were told beforehand that (1) there was a gender difference on the tasks (to induce stereotype threat) or (2) there was no gender difference (to remove any preexisting stereotype threat).ResultsOn the difficult task, women performed worse than men only when stereotype threat was induced. Performance on the easier speed task was unaffected by the stereotype information. Interestingly, women's beliefs regarding women's and men's general athleticism were also affected by the manipulation.ConclusionsWe concluded that one minor comment regarding a very specific athletic task may sometimes impair task performance and alter gender stereotypes of athleticism among women. Some implications for preventing negative stereotype threat effects are discussed.     

The AIDS Risk Reduction Model: Examining Intentions to Use Condoms Among Injection Drug Users1

This paper uses the AIDS Risk Reduction Model (ARRM) to examine psychosocial factors involved in adopting safer sex practices in a sample of Los Angeles injection drug users (IDUs; n= 161) who reported having more than one sex partner in the year preceding the interview. The ARRM hypothesizes that behavior change is a process occurring in three stages: (a) labeling one's behavior as problematic, (b) making a commitment to behavior change, and (c) taking action to accomplish that change. We test the first two stages of the model using a measure of perceived risk of HIV infection (Stage I), and intentions to use condoms always during vaginal or anal sex in the next year (Stage 2). We examine differences in the predictive value of the ARM between IDUs who reported using condoms in the year prior to the interview and those who reported not using them. We identify leverage points in the model-factors which appear to have a major influence on intentions to use condoms and which may be amenable to change through educational or other types of intervention. For both condom users and non-users, susceptibility to AIDS predicted perceived infection risk (Stage I). For condom users, knowledge about AIDS also predicted perceived risk. For both groups, self efficacy, peer norms concerning condom use, and the perceived pleasure of using condoms predicted intentions to use condoms (Stage 2). Our findings do not support either direct or indirect relationships between the Stage 1 and Stage 2 outcome variables for either group.