Why positive psychology is necessary

The authors provide a definition of positive psychology and suggest that psychologists should try to cultivate a more appreciative perspective on human nature. Examples are given of a negative bias that seems to pervade much of theoretical psychology, which may limit psychologists' understanding of typical and successful human functioning. Finally, a preview of the articles in the special section is given.     

A motivational model for environmentally responsible behavior

This paper presents a study examining whether self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation are related to environmentally responsible behavior (ERB). The study analysed past environmental behavior, self-regulatory mechanisms (self-efficacy, satisfaction, goals), and intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in relation to ERBs in a sample of 156 university students. Results show that all the motivational variables studied are linked to ERB. The effects of self-efficacy on ERB are mediated by the intrinsic motivation responses of the participants. A theoretical model was created by means of path analysis, revealing the power of motivational variables to predict ERB. Structural equation modeling was used to test and fit the research model. The role of motivational variables is discussed with a view to creating adequate learning contexts and experiences to generate interest and new sensations in which self-efficacy and affective reactions play an important role.     

Why People are Atypical Agents

Abstract

In this paper, I argue that the traditional philosophical approach of taking cognitively and emotionally competent adult people to be the prototypical instances of agency should be revised in light of current work in the behavioral sciences. Logical consistency in application is better served by taking simple goal-directed and feedback-governed systems such as insects as the prototypes of the concept of agency, with people being agents ‘by extension’ in the same sense as countries or corporations.     

Why Simpler Arguments are Better

In this paper, I argue that, other things being equal, simpler arguments are better. In other words, I argue that, other things being equal, it is rational to prefer simpler arguments over less simple ones. I sketch three arguments in support of this claim: an argument from mathematical proofs, an argument from scientific theories, and an argument from the conjunction rule.     

Several antecedent strategies in reduction of an environmentally destructive behavior.

The effects of response-specific prompts, prompts identifying long-term and short-term consequences, a combination of long-term and short-term consequences, and a combination of short-term consequences and response-specific prompts on the reduction of environmentally destructive lawn-walking were investigated. The response-specific prompt alone was effective, and its effectiveness was enhanced by the identification of short-term and long-term consequences; however, the mere identification of short-term and long-term consequences alone was not effective.     

Clinical significance and correlates of disruptive behavior in environmentally at-risk preschoolers

Examines the clinical significance and correlates of disruptive behavior disorder symptoms (DBDSX) in preschoolers. Participants were 129 predominantly minority preschoolers (2 1/2 to 5 1/2) residing in low-income environments, half of whom were clinic-referred for disruptive behavior. Children with higher levels of DBDSX were more impaired in parent-child, preschool and clinic contexts. Correlates of DBDSX included both prenatal and infancy risks (low soothability as infants, prenatal exposure to cigarettes) and concurrent parenting factors (harshness, low levels of behavioral responsiveness, and parenting stress). In general, the clinical and risk profile of DBDSX in preschoolers at environmental risk appears to be similar to that of older children. Based on the results of this study, etiologic and prevention research on disruptive behavior disorders should begin in the first few years of life.     

Why religious nationalists are not fundamentalists

J. W. Nicholas, Psience—a general theory of existence, Reality revealed—the theory of multidimensional reality Call Adonoi—manual of practical cabalah and gestalt mysticism The Expanding Force in Newton's Cosmos D. Vogt &; G. Sultan, Vector Associates, San Jose (California), 1977, 460 pp;

A. L. Schutz, Quantal, Goleta (California), 1980, 100 pp; D. Castillejo, Ediciones de Arte y Bibliofilia, Madrid, 1981, 125 pp     

Why we are fairer than others

Subjects wrote lists of either fair or unfair things that they or others did. A pervasive tendency was found for subjects to associate themselves with fair behaviors and others with unfair behaviors. When different subjects rated samples of the written behaviors for fairness and frequency we found that fair behaviors were rated as more frequent than unfair behaviors and self-ascribed behaviors were rated as fairer than behaviors ascribed to others. These findings and others are shown to result from a tendency for subjects to perceive a stronger link between the fairness and frequency of their own behavior than between the fairness and frequency of the behavior of other people. A final analysis showed that the subcategories of unfair behavior that subjects associated with others were different from those associated with themselves.     

Why metrical properties are not powers

What has the dispositional analysis of properties and laws (e.g. Molnar, Powers, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2003; Mumford, Laws in nature, Routledge London, 2004; Bird, Nature’s metaphysics, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2007) to offer to the scientific understanding of physical properties?—The article provides an answer to this question for the case of spacetime points and their metrical properties in General Relativity. The analysis shows that metrical properties are not ‘powers’, i.e. they cannot be understood as producing the effects of spacetime on matter with metaphysical necessity. Instead they possess categorical characteristics which, in connection with specific laws, explain those effects. Thus, the properties of spacetime do not favor the metaphysics of powers with respect to properties and laws.     

Why the social sciences are irreducible

Synthese - It is often claimed that the social sciences cannot be reduced to a lower-level individualistic science. The standard argument for this position (usually labelled explanatoryholism) is...     

Why night owls are more intelligent

The origin of values and preferences is an unresolved theoretical problem in social and behavioral sciences. The Savanna–IQ Interaction Hypothesis suggests that more intelligent individuals are more likely to acquire and espouse evolutionarily novel values and preferences than less intelligent individuals, but general intelligence has no effect on the acquisition and espousal of evolutionarily familiar values and preferences. Individuals can often choose their values and preferences even in the face of genetic predisposition. One example of such choice within genetic constraint is circadian rhythms. Survey of ethnographies of traditional societies suggests that nocturnal activities were probably rare in the ancestral environment, so the Hypothesis would predict that more intelligent individuals are more likely to be nocturnal than less intelligent individuals. The analysis of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) confirms the prediction.     

Luminance edges are not necessary for visual completion

Luminance edges seem to have an important role in visual feature binding and, more specifically, in visual completion because luminance differences are important for the perception of depth. We investigated this claim in two experiments in which the primed-matching paradigm was used. In Experiment 1, we investigated conditions under which either a partly occluded shape or an occluder was isoluminant with respect to the background. In Experiment 2, the partly occluded shape and the occluder were isoluminant with respect to each other. Evidence was found for visual completion in all cases, and we therefore conclude that luminance edges are not essential for visual completion.     

Why visual attention and awareness are different

Now that the study of consciousness is warmly embraced by cognitive scientists, much confusion seems to arise between the concepts of visual attention and visual awareness. Often, visual awareness is equated to what is in the focus of attention. There are, however, two sets of arguments to separate attention from awareness: a psychological/theoretical one and a neurobiological one. By combining these arguments I present definitions of visual attention and awareness that clearly distinguish between the two, yet explain why attention and awareness are so intricately related. In fact, there seems more overlap between mechanisms of memory and awareness than between those of attention and awareness.     

Behavioral genetic analyses of prosocial behavior in adolescents

Prosocial behavior is an important aspect of normal social and psychological development. Adult and child twin studies typically estimate the heritability of prosocial behavior to be between 30 and 50%, although relatively little is known about genetic and environmental influences upon prosocial behavior in adolescence. We therefore examined reports of prosocial behavior in a large longitudinal family study of 1160 adolescent twin pairs (aged between 13 and 19 years). Prosocial behavior was assessed at two time points by self‐report and at the second time point by additional parent‐ratings using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman, 1997 ). Adolescent females were reported to be significantly more prosocial than males (p < .001). Univariate analyses primarily showed moderate heritability and large nonshared environmental influences. There was a moderate genetic correlation between self‐ and parent‐reported prosocial behaviour, suggesting that both types of rater were tapping into genetically overlapping constructs. Longitudinal analyses revealed that continuity was largely explained by genes. Unique environmental influences were predominantly time‐specific and were the major source of individual differences.     

Why the Brits are in two minds about therapy

Professor Frank Furedi is the author of a number of popular sociological discourses with a common theme that can be broadly summarised as betraying discomfort with 21st century western society's preoccupation with risk management. In this article, his arguments concerning the nature of what he calls 'therapy culture' are deconstructed for their essential conservative bias and persistent misunderstanding of the nature of modern psychological therapy. Three years ago, Furedi characterised counselling as 'one of the biggest cons of modern life' in conversation with the Health Editor of the Independent newspaper. My text highlights (1) the paucity of his evidence for this assertion and (2) his misguided grasp of the thrust of therapy since counselling is a difficult option whose sole goal is the stronger individualism and independence of the client—qualities he otherwise claims to admire.     

Why preschoolers are reluctant to count spontaneously

Two experiments are reported which examine children's counting and its role in reasoning about the relative numerosity of two arrays. In the first experiment, children's number judgements were compared under different conditions designed to evaluate the importance of three different cues to number—length and density of rows, small number perception and counting. Children were found to count very rarely unless specifically asked to do so. Experiment 2 investigated some possible reasons why children who count readily in some situations are reluctant to count spontaneously in this number judgement task. Spontaneous counting in 4-year-olds increased in one condition only: when they were given feedback as to the correctness of their previous judgements. This feedback showed that basing judgements on number as counted was always correct whereas length and density judgements were only sometimes correct. Preschoolers' preference for length as a cue to number may therefore be due to their belief that length is a more reliable cue than counting, rather than to their ignorance about the link between counting and numerical reasoning.