广告信息加工中的性别差异

1 引言许多研究表明,广告代言人对于促进广告对受众的作用非常重要。Phillips(1996)认为,广告中的代言人可以吸引注意,提高对产品的再认和回忆,因为广告制作者用广告代言人将其所欲表达的诉求、意义赋予了产品。但至今尚未见到有人研究对于男、女性受众来说,不同性别的代言人就其所代言的品牌对他们的记忆能够产生多大作用。尤其是不同性别的代言人对不同性别受众的内隐记忆,即自动化加工的作用亦未见到有关研究。本研究试图用加工分离程序(PDP,Jacoby,1991)就不同性别广告代言人条件下,不同性别受众对其代言品牌的控制性加工和自动化加工作一初步探讨。     

不同年龄广告名人效应的心理加工机制研究

本研究从自动化加工和控制性加工这个视角研究了名人效应的心理加工机制。实验运用加工分离程序,探讨了不同年龄阶段的受众对名人广告的信息加工模式。结果发现：(1)名人效应是一个普遍存在的现象,与用一般消费者做代言人相比,青少年、成年人(大学生)以及老年人对名人广告均明显存在更多的自动化加工,且加工水平没有年龄差异。但是,老年人的控制性加工明显低于其他两组;(2)在非注意条件下,代言人的专业化程度明显地影响了大学生组的控制性加工,但与各组被试的自动化加工都关系不大。这些研究发现为广告策略的制定带来了一些新的启示。     

广告频率和品牌成熟度对信息加工模式的影响

广告可以通过受众的自动化加工和控制性加工两条途径为品牌价值的建立作出贡献。该研究运用加工分离程序,探讨了在不同的呈现频率下,受众对不同成熟度商品的广告的信息加工模式。结果发现：(1)在非注意条件下,与新品牌相比,成熟品牌会引起更多的自动化加工,控制性加工在各种成熟度的商品之间差异不显著;(2)在低卷入学习状态下,重复既提高了广告的自动影响,也提高了控制性加工的影响。因此,重复播放是提高广告有效性的一条途径。     

“美男诱惑”真的奏效吗：男性代言女性产品对女性消费者产品评价的影响

男性代言女性产品的广告策略真的奏效吗?本文旨在探讨女性产品代言人性别与女性消费者对该产品评价之间的关系。4个实验的结果显示, 与女性代言女性产品相比, 男性代言时女性消费者对该产品的评价会显著降低。该影响是通过身份威胁感的中介实现的。此外, 身份肯定对该效应存在调节作用。具体来讲, 当被试受到女性身份肯定操控时, 主效应会加强。本文实证研究了男性代言女性产品可能带来的负面效应, 基于性别认同一致性理论拓展了产品性别属性的下游结果。     

“美男诱惑”真的奏效吗:男性代言女性产品对女性消费者产品评价的影响

男性代言女性产品的广告策略真的奏效吗?本文旨在探讨女性产品代言人性别与女性消费者对该产品评价之间的关系。4个实验的结果显示,与女性代言女性产品相比,男性代言时女性消费者对该产品的评价会显著降低。该影响是通过身份威胁感的中介实现的。此外,身份肯定对该效应存在调节作用。具体来讲,当被试受到女性身份肯定操控时,主效应会加强。本文实证研究了男性代言女性产品可能带来的负面效应,基于性别认同一致性理论拓展了产品性别属性的下游结果。     

广告中性别刻板印象的信息加工方式

通过操纵注意方式、刻板印象的启动方式及被试的刻板化状态,探讨了广告中性别刻板印象信息加工的方式和特点。结果表明：（1） 广告中性别刻板印象信息的加工是自动化加工和控制性加工共同作用的结果,刻板化启动引起更多的自动化加工,反刻板化启动引起更多的控制性加工;（2）注意方式影响广告中性别刻板印象信息的控制性加工而不影响其自动化加工,集中注意时控制性加工的贡献最大;（3）对于广告中的性别刻板化信息,刻板化程度高的人具有更严格的判断标准。     

额外正面信息对广告评价的影响研究

本研究采用方差分析和概化理论,考察了在呈现及不呈现额外正向信息的条件下,不同性别被试对同一批广告在4个纬度上评价分数以及评定一致性的影响。结果发现：额外正向信息和被试性别对广告评价各纬度得分都没有显著影响,但是额外正向信息使被试在广告各纬度评价一致性上发生了差异,体现出男性评价一致性降低、女性评价一致性提高的趋势。     

广告的加工时间和注意水平对消费者信息加工模式的影响

本研究通过直接测量、间接测量和加工分离程序这几种测量方法检验了消费者对广告品牌名称的外显记忆和内隐记忆,并考察了各种测量方法对注意水平和信息加工时间的敏感性。结果发现：(1)分散注意条件下,再认成绩降低,而名牌判断任务的成绩没有差异;控制性加工减少,而自动化加工在各种注意水平下变化不大;(2)广告刺激呈现时间的减少降低了控制性的加工;(3)PDP可以分离广告的控制性加工和自动化加工。     

印象形成中交叉刻板印象的加工机制

以大学生作为被试,旨在探究：在交叉刻板印象加工过程中,是否存在某一单维刻板印象的加工优势效应？如果存在,靶子熟悉度的差异是否会影响单维刻板印象的加工优势效应？该单维刻板印象加工优势效应是否还会受到其他单维刻板印象加工的调节。研究结果表明：（1）在对具有性别-年龄组合而成的交叉刻板印象的人群进行判断时,通过面孔进行启动,发现在不同的条件下分别存在性别单维刻板印象和年龄单维刻板印象的加工优势效应,即年轻男性或女性面孔的性别特征较年龄特征更容易得到加工和提取,老年男性或女性面孔的年龄特征较性别特征更具有加工优势。而在范畴词汇启动下,老年男性或女性词汇启动下的年龄特征较性别特征更具有加工优势。（2）熟悉性会影响单维刻板印象的加工优势,即在年轻被试感知面孔或范畴词汇时,其对老年男性或女性靶子间击中率的差异要显著大于对年轻男性或女性的靶子间击中率的差异。换言之,年轻被试感知老年人靶子的性别与年龄间的差异要显著大于年轻人靶子,出现自我参照现象。（3）在交叉刻板印象加工中,同时存在的各类单维刻板印象加工是彼此削弱的,具有优势加工效应的刻板印象的加工会受到非优势刻板印象加工的抑制。（4）在交叉刻板印象加工中,优势刻板印象加工会受到其相对刻板印象加工的削弱。     

“一”人代言的魅力：品牌代言人数如何影响消费者的品牌态度

有的品牌仅邀请一位名人代言, 而有的品牌由多位名人代言, 那么一人代言还是多人代言会更有效?为了回答该问题, 研究基于形象转移视角和单人积极偏差, 深入探究了品牌代言人数因素(一位代言人vs.多位代言人)对品牌态度的影响机制和边界条件。研究发现：相比品牌多人代言, 品牌单人代言使消费者的品牌态度更高。原因在于消费者与一位(vs.多位)品牌代言人的自我-品牌联结更紧密, 进而促进品牌态度。该品牌代言人效应仅局限于象征型产品, 而对于非身份象征型产品, 品牌单人代言(vs.品牌多人代言)对品牌态度无显著差异。此外, 当多位品牌代言人为一个团体时, 品牌代言人数效应将被逆转, 即品牌多人代言(vs.品牌单人代言)对品牌态度的影响更高。     

What If the Energizer Bunny Were Female? Importance of Gender in Perceptions of Advertising Spokes-Character Effectiveness

An experiment was designed to determine whether and in what way gender makes a difference in the ratings of advertising spokes-characters. It was hypothesized and results confirmed that gender and product type affect the likability of spokes-characters and perceptions of target audience. A male spokes-character is perceived as more appropriate for a male-oriented product; however, a female spokes-character and a male product created the impression that the product was not quite so male oriented. It was also hypothesized that the spokes-character with the most positive ratings would be the most memorable. Results did not bear this out.     

Spatial inattention abolishes voice adaptation

Adaptation to male voices causes a subsequent voice to be perceived as more female, and vice versa. Similar contrastive aftereffects have been reported for phonetic perception, and in vision for face perception. However, while aftereffects in the perception of phonetic features of speech have been reported to persist even when adaptors were processed inattentively, face aftereffects were previously reported to be abolished by inattention to adaptors. Here we demonstrate that auditory aftereffects of adaptation to voice gender are eliminated when the male and female adaptor voices are spatially unattended. Participants simultaneously heard gender-specific male or female adaptor voices in one ear and gender-neutral (androgynous) adaptor voices in the contralateral ear. They selectively attended to the adaptor voices in a designated ear, by either classifying voice gender (Exp. 1) or spoken syllable (Exp. 2). Voice aftereffects were found only if the gender-specific voices were spatially attended, suggesting capacity limits in the processing of voice gender for the unattended ear. Remarkably, gender-specific adaptors in the attended ear elicited comparable aftereffects in test voices, regardless of prior attention to voice gender or phonetic content. Thus, within the attended ear, voice gender was processed even when it was irrelevant for the task at hand, suggesting automatic processing of gender along with linguistic information. Overall, voice gender adaptation requires spatial, but not dimensional, selective attention.     

新生代知识员工队伍的工作家庭冲突——基于人口特征差异交互效应的视角

本研究以来自高科技企业的500名新生代知识员工为样本,采用单因变量多因素方差分析法揭示了工作家庭冲突的人口特征差异,以及不同人口特征变量之间的交互效应。检验结果表明：（1）新生代知识员工的工作家庭冲突存在显著的性别差异与工龄差异,而职位层次差异并不显著;（2）工作家庭冲突的性别差异分别与工龄差异、职位层次差异之间存在显著的二维交互效应;（3）性别差异与工龄差异、职位层次差异之间存在显著的三维交互效应。     

Gender ratio,societal culture,and male and female leadership

Top management teams are worldwide largely composed of men, with relatively few female members. The gender ratio in top management is indicative of the position of women in management within the organization, as well as related to leadership behaviours of male and female managers. In the present study, the relative importance of societal culture, organizational, and individual characteristics in explaining leadership behaviours and the associations of gender and gender ratio with leadership behaviours are studied. Hypotheses are tested with multi‐level analyses using a dataset with information from subordinates rating leadership behaviours of 12,546 managers in 437 organizations in 32 countries. The results show that in a three‐level model (i.e., societal, organizational, and individual level) to explain leadership behaviours, differences in leadership behaviours are predominantly explained by individual differences, followed by organizational and societal differences. Further, after controlling for societal influences, a higher gender ratio (relatively more female managers), was positively associated with consideration and negatively related to initiating structure. Moreover, for male managers, there was a negative association between gender ratio and initiating structure, indicating that male managers in organizations with more female managers tend to engage less in initiating structure, whereas the leadership behaviours of female managers were not associated with the gender ratio.     

Perpetuating Gender Inequality via the Internet? An Analysis of Women’s Presence in Spanish Online Newspapers

This study examines women’s representation in Spanish national online newspapers. For this purpose, we developed an automatic content analysis method to analyze an extensive sample of 34,235 news articles gathered from March to May 2006. Our general objective was to investigate possible gender bias in Spanish online news. To do so we focused on three journalistic routines, one at the individual level of the reporter (gender) and two at the media routine level (sections, publication day, and article length). The results of the estimated multivariate models revealed that women are still linked to traditionally “female” sections, such as people, society, and culture. Analysis of article length and publication day showed that women appear more frequently in shorter news items and in the Sunday news, which we interpreted as indicators of male association with newsworthiness. We also found differences in gender reporting since female journalists tend to include more women in the news they report than their male peers. These results provide evidence that online newspapers continue to perpetuate underrepresentation, stereotyping, and discrimination of women in web news thereby reinforcing gender inequality.     

Gender Differences in Implicit Processing of Sexual Stimuli

The present studies investigated whether men and women differ in cognitive–motivational processing of sexual stimuli in order to better understand the commonly observed gender differences in sexual outcome variables. Because these processes often operate without conscious control, we focused specifically on automatic stimulus processing. Using a series of implicit tasks, we measured inhibition, attentional orientation, appraisal and approach‐avoidance motivation regarding sexually explicit stimuli in male and female students. Results showed that men were more strongly motivated to approach sexual stimuli than women and were better able to inhibit sexual information as to prevent activation of the sexual response. With regard to attentional orientation, men were more easily drawn by sexual cues than women, yet only when the cues were presented long enough to allow more elaborative processing. No gender differences were found in the implicit evaluation of sexual information, although men and women did differ at the level of self‐reported sexual evaluations. Our results indicate the importance of incorporating information‐processing mechanisms and emotion regulation strategies into the conceptualization of the sexual response and promote further research on the specificity, robustness, predictive validity and malleability of the cognitive–motivational processes underlying sexual arousal. Copyright © 2015 European Association of Personality Psychology     

Perceiving age and gender in unfamiliar faces: an fMRI study on face categorization

Efficient processing of unfamiliar faces typically involves their categorization (e.g., into old vs. young or male vs. female). However, age and gender categorization may pose different perceptual demands. In the present study, we employed functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to compare the activity evoked during age vs. gender categorization of unfamiliar faces. In different blocks, participants performed age and gender classifications for old or young unfamiliar faces (50% female respectively). Both tasks elicited activations in the bilateral fusiform gyri (fusiform face area, FFA) and bilateral inferior occipital gyri (occipital face area, OFA). Importantly, the same stimuli elicited enhanced activation during gender as compared to age categorization. This enhancement was significant in the right FFA and the left OFA, and may be related to increased configural processing. Our findings replicate and extend recent work, and shows that the activation of core components of the face processing network is strongly dependent on task demands.     

Gender Bias on the Thematic Apperception Test

Thirty male and 30 female college students generated stories to a set of nine Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) cards with either male or female stimulus characters. The Fine scoring system was factor analyzed to produce seven factor clusters plus three outcome variables. Multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed a main effect for type of card. The female TAT cards elicited significantly more responses on the General Concerns scale than did the male TAT cards. A main effect for subject gender showed the females gave more responses than males on the Interpersonal Relations scale. No differences were found on the outcome variables.