认知心理学产生的历史背景分析

本文从外因与内因相结合,外因通过内因起作用的观点分析了认知心理学产生的历史背景。外因主要是信息论、控制论、计算机科学和乔姆斯基语言学的影响。内因主要是早期实验心理学的心理主义传统的影响,特别是冯特、顿德斯、屈尔佩、格式塔心理学、新行为主义以及近代布鲁纳的新观点等的影响。     

事物发展运动的必然性寓于内因之中

关于“内因”和“外因”在事物发展过程中的作用问题,有一种观点认为:外因也可以规定运动的内容、性质和方向,它和内因同样可作为变化的根据,而且外因有时可以转化为内因。我们认为:从因果关系的基本概念出发来讨论这一问题,不能得出这样     

应当重视肿瘤微环境中外因的研究

长期以来,肿瘤学的几乎所有研究一直在关注肿瘤细胞本身,从哲学角度看这无疑是正确的。肿瘤细胞是肿瘤事件发生发展的内因。近年研究表明,肿瘤的外因,即肿瘤微环境中的非肿瘤细胞及其产物,对肿瘤的发生发展起着十分重要的作用。肿瘤微环境的外因,通过作用于内因选择了更具抵抗性的肿瘤细胞,促进了肿瘤的进展与转移。因此,重视肿瘤微环境的外因研究,对肿瘤治疗学将会开辟以外因为靶点干预的新思路。     

外因内化而起作用的普遍性及其意义

外因内化而起作用的普遍性及其意义陶富源外因作为条件通过内因而起作用,这是对外因作用的通常表述。在这里作为条件的外因对特定的过程起着催化剂或助产婆的作用,即加速或延缓作用,并使事物发展显示出特定的外貌。但是能否由此认为,这是对外因作用的全面的真理性的认识呢？不能。人类实践和现代科学的发展已经在这一方面为我们提供了许多新的素材,启发我们去进行新的概括和总结,去丰富和发展既有的关于外因作用的真理性认识。正是基于这种思考,笔者认为,外因不仅可以作为条件通过内因而起作用,而且在一定条件下,外因可以转化为内因而起作用。外因通过内化而起作用。这是一种普遍性存在。在教育学理论中,学生的内在构成要素是其成长的内因,教师是学生成长的外因,这是没有争议的。但是在如何看待教师在学生成长过程中的作用问题上,就存在两种不同的观点。一种观点认为,内因是根据,外因是条件,外因通过内因而起作用。因而,学生如果不好好学,那么再好的老师也不起作用。另一种观点认为,名师出高徒,再差的学生,只要有好老师教,也会有进步。不难断定,第一种观点无疑有其真理性,但同样,第二种观点也并非虚言,它确实是对古今中外许多教育家成功经验的总结。比如爱尔维修就说过。＂     

论外因的重要作用

内因和外因对事物发展的作用问题是一个十分复杂的需要继续探讨的问题。过去一个相当长的时间里,国内普遍流行一种过分夸大内因,轻视外因的观点,在理论上造成了混乱,在实际上带来了危害。现将我的一点很不成熟的看法陈述于后。     

影响药物治疗的疗效和不良反应的内因和外因

影响药物治疗反应(主要指疗效和不良反应)的因素包括内因(如患者的生理因素、体质因素、病理因素和人文因素等)和外因(如疾病的病因和诱因、药物治疗方案及其执行以及社会环境因素等)。内因是基础,外因是条件,外因通过内因而起作用。内因和外因是相对的,并非一成不变。在制定药物治疗方案时,治疗方向和目标既要针对外因,又不能忽视内因。在实施药物治疗方案时,既要重视医务人员的规范,又要关注患者的教育和指导;既要监测疾病的改善,也要观察患者抵抗力的变化。在分析和处理药学问题时,既要从外因如治疗方案的设计和实施上去找原因,也要重视内因的变化对治疗反应的影响。     

可喜的内因

倘若一个人只看到树叶却不见树干,我们就会说他只知表象不知道根本,或者说只知有外因不知有内因。对于气候变暖导致南极冰盖融化,有人对自然界的内因就似乎一度有些认识不足。人们曾说,海平面在扩大,陆地逐渐被淹没,地球将变为"水球"了。届时恐怕连"诺亚方舟"也救不了人类。然而事情并非像这些人所说的如此恐怖。其实,大自然也是能凭着它的内在力量进行自救的。此是前不久的一项重大科学发现。发现     

江苏省连续性内部资料性出版物规制变迁动因研究

规制变迁的内因是规制失灵,外因是制度环境、意识形态等的发展变化。1997年以来,江苏省连续性内部资料性出版物规制从规制类型到规制体系均经历着持续变迁。在这个过程中,意识形态是规制变迁的重要外因,同时也是规制变迁方向的决定性因素。     

慢性心力衰竭与恶性肿瘤发病机制的理论比较

阐明慢性心力衰竭的病理生理机制对制定防治策略具有重要的作用.根据"内因"与"外因"的辩证关系,借鉴时肿瘤发病机制的一些认识,从另外一个角度对慢性心力衰竭的发病机制进行细致的剖析,以期为临床防治提供一个全新的方向.     

审视经济全球化的几个视角

２０世纪末叶,世界历史发生了一些令人瞩目的事件：东南亚金融危机、俄罗斯经济危机、巴尔干地区战火重燃……,而这些事件发生又伴随着所谓经济全球化的进程。１．从东南亚金融危机看经济全球化的实质东南亚爆发金融危机,引起了全球经济的震荡。因此,各国政要、学者对此都给予了高度的关注。就产生危机的原因而言。有内因论说、外因论说,亦有国际金融资本冲击是外因,各国金融体制不健全、经济结构不合理、腐败等是内因,外因通过内因起作用的分析。而剖析东南亚金融危机产生的深层次原因,不能不审视经济全球化的大背景。所谓经济全球…     

Pragmatic causal distortion in counselling

A person's actions are caused by the interaction between external environmental forces and internal personal forces. Attributing actions to one or the other set of forces is an arbitrary distortion. In therapy, attributing actions to external forces - particularly past events - relieves the client of guilt and helps him to make sense out of his actions. Attributing actions to internal sources provides a means by which the client can change his actions by changing his ideas, interpretation of events, and attitudes. Using both of these distortions of cause, a method of therapy is presented which emphasises the client's responsibility for his actions, and is aimed at developing the client as an active causal agent in his own life.     

When discounting fails: An unexpected finding

Two studies were designed to investigate the effects of prior information about plausible causes on subsequent attributions. In the Experiment 1, prior information was given about an internal and an external cause. It was predicted and found that the stronger an expectancy for a behavior, the more the behavior would be attributed to the cause that formed the basis of the expectancy. It was also predicted that (1) for facilitative causes, the stronger the expectancy based on a given cause, the less the behavior would be attributed to other causes (discounting), and (2)for inhibitory causes, the stronger the expectancy, the more the behavior would be attributed to other causes (augmenting). These predictions were not supported. It was suggested that discounting and augmenting did not occur because subjects had been given information about both causes which "locked in" their attributions to each cause. To test this explanation, a second study was undertaken in which observers were given information about only one cause. The results of Experiment 2 indicated that discounting and augmenting may only occur for attributions to causes about which no prior information is available.     

Causal attributions and male sexual arousal: the impact of attributions for a bogus erectile difficulty on sexual arousal, cognitions, and affect

After viewing 2 sexually explicit films, 52 sexually functional participants were given bogus feedback indicating a low erectile response. The men were given either an external, fluctuating attribution (i.e., poor films) or an internal, stable attribution (i.e., problematic thoughts about sex) for the low arousal. As hypothesized, participants in the external, fluctuating group evidenced greater erectile response and subjective arousal during a 3rd film than did participants given the internal, stable attribution. This may indicate that after an occasion of erectile difficulty, the cause to which the difficulty is attributed plays an important role in future sexual functioning.     

Field dependent eating and perception as a function of weight and sex

It was hypothesized that the greater influence of external cues on obese than on normal individuals' eating behavior is a manifestation of a generalized sensitivity to external cues. Responsivity of nut consumption to the external cue of shells on the nuts and responsivity of judgment of verticality to the external cue of a tilted visual field were assessed for male and female, obese and normal-weight subjects. As predicted, both obese subjects' nut consumption and their judgments of verticality were more influenced by external cues than were those of normals. Females' judgments of verticality were more influenced by external cues than males' were, but the sex differences in eating behavior were not statistically significant. A significant correlation between the field dependence of subjects' eating behavior and their judgments of verticality suggests that a single cause may generate sensitivity to external cues in these two diverse situations.     

医学模式的转变与循证医学

生物-心理-社会医学模式是20世纪70年代末提出的医学模式理念,但目前我国仍未完成医学模式的转变.在20世纪最后10年,西方发达国家医学界又提出了循证医学这一概念.这就给我国医学和相关学科工作者,在认识上造成了一些混乱.就二者的关系、医学模式转变困难的客观原因进行讨论.     

Alleviation of narcotic withdrawal syndrome by conditional stimuli

We systematically paired auditory, olfactory, and social stimuli with each injection of morphine in rats. We found that, when morphine was kept constant at a low dose, the external stimuli acquired the property of a conditional stimulus (CS) to cause hyperthermia which was antagonized by naloxone. In rats in which morphine doses were regularly increased to cause morphine dependence, the CS presented during withdrawal, caused reduction in withdrawal signs (wet shakes, hypothermia, aggression) and produced hyperglycemia as well as elevation of striatal homovanillic acid. CS-induced alleviation of withdrawal hypothermia was blocked by mecamylamine, phenoxybenzamine, haloperidol, benztropine or naloxone but not by cyproheptadine or propranolol.     

The role of fairness orientation and supervisor attributions in absence disciplinary decisions

The present study investigated the role of the work value of fairness and attributions regarding the causes of absence in supervisor disciplinary decisions. It was hypothesized that supervisors who valued fairness, and those who made internal attributions regarding the cause of a particular absence incident, render more severe disciplinary decisions than supervisors who value fairness less, and who make external attributions. Furthermore, it was hypothesized that the degree to which supervisors valued fairness moderates the relationship between external attributions and the severity of disciplinary decisions. Using a policy capturing approach, results were consistent with predictions. Implications of the results for research and practice are discussed.     

Moral judgment and the development of causal schemes

The present study investigated (i) the relationship between blame and perceived causality; (ii) the effect of the nature of causes on causal inference. Seventy-two persons from three age groups (5, 9 years and adults) responded to behavioural events which varied in outcome intensity, the nature of the cause (internal/external) and its presence (present/absent). The latter two factors had a marked effect on attributed blame and inferred causes as an age × nature × presence of cause interaction was found in both cases. However, inferred causes were not systematically related to attributed blame. Outcome severity led to more extreme blame ratings in all groups but only affected the causal scheme used by adults. The results are discussed in terms of over-attribution to persons and a more precise criterion for the use of the multiple sufficient cause scheme is evaluated.     

宫颈癌病因及预防

从哲学角度讨论宫颈癌的病因,思考临床工作中如何预防宫颈癌。宫颈癌的发生是内因外因综合作用的结果。实验与临床研究发现人类乳头瘤病毒（HPV）家族中的高危型HPV的持续感染是宫颈癌及其癌前病变发生的主要外因。本文将讨论HPV分型检测作为宫颈癌筛查系统的一个重要元素在预防宫颈癌发生中所处的地位。     

Children's reasoning about the causes of human behavior

Three studies examined young children's ability to predict how certain internal and external conditions affect behavior. Study 1 included 136 children from early preschool, late preschool, kindergarten, and second grade. A forced choice procedure revealed that even the youngest group could predict the effect of various internal-personal causes (e.g., interest, intelligence) and external-situational causes (e.g., rewards, adult pressure). Older preschoolers and second graders considered these internal causes more powerful than these external causes. With the same procedure, in Study 2 the 16 preschoolers predicted that both physical characteristics (e.g., strength, energy level) and the internal-personal characteristics of Study 1 affect performance in athletic activities. In addition, they considered the physical causes more important. Study 3 examined more complex types of causal reasoning. Younger preschoolers responded randomly but older preschoolers combined two causes to create a greater effect than one cause and used an external cause to enhance, rather than discount, an internal cause. The discussion focused on the cognitive development underlying developmental differences in the ability to predict behavior on the basis of one or two causes.