THE USE OF IMPOSED AND SELF-SELECTED TRAINING PACKAGES TO ESTABLISH CLASSROOM TEACHING SKILLS1

Although much is known about techniques for teaching elementary pupils in the classroom, no procedures have been consistently effective in training teachers to use these techniques. In the present study, six teacher trainees were observed individually and trained sequentially to use a variety of teaching skills: praise for academic responses, praise for appropriate classroom behavior, correction procedures for incorrect academic responses, and token fines. These skills were examined under four conditions: (1) baseline sessions were taught by the trainees before any instructions on the use of the teaching skills. (2) Instruction sessions were taught by the trainees after they were given instructions describing the use of several teaching skills. (3) During each Imposed-Package session, the trainees received modelling, verbal feedback, graphic feedback, and grade and quiz contingencies on their use of a particular teaching skill. (4) During each Self-Selected Package session, a grade contingency was in effect with the trainees choosing the components (modelling, verbal feedback, graphic feedback, quiz contingency) they wanted included in their training package for a particular skill. The effects of instructions were quite varied. Large increases on three of the four skills occurred with one trainee; almost no changes occurred with another trainee; and changes with the remaining four trainees fell within these extremes. The Imposed and Self-Selected Packages reliably increased the use of teaching skills, including those skills for which instructions had not been effective. The Self-Selected Package was considered to be as effective as the Imposed Package, since the time required for training a teaching skill varied from two to nine sessions with both packages. Under the Self-Selected Package, the trainees chose from modelling, verbal feedback, and graphic feedback, but none chose the quiz contingency. Questionnaire data collected after training showed that all six trainees preferred the Self-Selected Package to the Imposed Package. The effectiveness of the Self-Selected Package, together with the trainees' preference for it, suggests that it may be desirable for teacher training programs to specify the teaching skills, arrange a contingency for performance, and allow trainees to choose which additional components are to be used in each training session.     

Differential effects of pretraining influences on readiness to change

Training and development are integral to organizational change but are difficult to accomplish effectively in dynamic and complex work environments. Such environments can lead to nonoptimal training conditions that reduce individuals' readiness to change and training effectiveness. On the basis of the transtheoretical model of change (J. O. Prochaska, C. C. DiClemente, & J. C. Norcross, 1992), the authors examined pretraining influences (choice, social support, and motivation to learn) on readiness to change under nonoptimal training conditions. They examined specific dimensions of readiness to change rather than a global readiness to change construct. Participants were 183 driving under the influence (DUI) offenders participating in a court-mandated, alcohol-related Weekend Intervention Program. Perceived choice to attend training, social support, and motivation to learn affected readiness to change when individuals were resisting, considering, acting on, or maintaining behavior or attitude change. These effects were also dependent on age. Results suggest how training effectiveness could be improved when trainees are least likely to learn.     

Feminist identity and program characteristics in the development of trainees’ social advocacy

Feminism, multiculturalism, and social justice (SJ) are closely related constructs, with an important shared emphasis on societal barriers and client empowerment. Yet, research on the relationships between the three variables in their links to counselor advocacy remains scarce. Employing the Input–Environment–Outcome framework, this study examined the unique contributions of 235 female trainees’ feminist identity, training environment SJ supports, and training multicultural focus in explaining trainees’ advocacy using a three-step hierarchical MMLR model. Findings revealed that all three factors were important to trainees’ advocacy. However, the extent to which each factor influenced advocacy varied. For instance, the more strongly identified trainees were with the Feminist Identity Active Commitment stage, the more likely they were to engage at all four levels of advocacy. Conversely, the more aligned trainees were with Passive Acceptance, the less likely they were to empower clients. Moreover, although both training environment SJ support and multicultural focus were influential, SJ training environment was a better predictor of trainee’s advocacy than multicultural training environment. These findings not only highlight the distinctions between SJ and multiculturalism, but also argue for the importance of SJ training in addition to multicultural training. Implications for theories, training, and practice are discussed.     

GENERALIZATION OF EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT TRAINING TO THE JOB SETTING: INDIVIDUAL AND SITUATIONAL EFFECTS

This study examined whether variables at individual, unit, and suborganization levels influence the extent to which the knowledge and skills learned in employee involvement (EI) training are generalized beyond specific EI activities. Training generalization occurs when the knowledge and skills learned in training for a specific purpose in one context (e.g., EI training for use in quality circles) are applied by trainees in another context (e.g., regular job duties). A multiple-cross-level design using data gathered from 252 employees and supervisors drawn from 88 units across 11 suborganizations provided support for both individual and situational effects. Hierarchical regression results demonstrated that characteristics at individual, unit, and suborganization levels significantly predicted the extent EI knowledge, skills, and attitudes were generalized to the core job activities. As predicted, trainees were more likely to use EI training in performing core job activities the more EI activities they participated in, the greater their commitment to the organization, and the less cynical they were about the likelihood of positive organizational change. Contrary to expectations, more generalization of EI training was found to occur in units and suborganizations with less participative climates.     

Computer Technology Training in the Workplace: A Longitudinal Investigation of the Effect of Mood

How does a person's mood during technology training influence motivation, intentions, and, ultimately, usage of the new technology? Do these mood effects dissipate or are they sustainable over time? A repeated-measures field study (n = 316) investigated the effect of mood on employee motivation and intentions toward using a specific computer technology at two points in time: immediately after training and 6 weeks after training. Actual usage behavior was assessed for 12 weeks after training. Each individual was assigned to one of three mood treatments: positive, negative, or control. Results indicated that there were only short-term boosts in intrinsic motivation and intention to use the technology among individuals in the positive mood intervention. However, a long-term lowering of intrinsic motivation and intention was observed among those in the negative mood condition.     

EFFECTS OF CHARISMATIC INFLUENCE TRAINING ON ATTITUDES, BEHAVIOR, AND PERFORMANCE

This study investigated the effectiveness of training in 2 components of charisma (charismatic communication style and visionary content). Forty-one business students received charismatic influence training, presentation skills training, or no training. All participants prepared and gave a speech. Groups of 2-3 students ( N = 102) watched 1 of the videotaped speeches and then performed a task based on the speech instructions. Charismatic influence trainees performed better on a declarative knowledge test and exhibited more charismatic behaviors than those in the other conditions. In addition, participants who viewed a charismatic influence trainee performed best.     

Being in one's chosen job determines pre‐training attitudes and training outcomes

The present study introduces a new important variable into a model of training motivation, namely that of being in one's chosen job. Evidence exists that having some control and choice over aspects of training have positive effects on training motivation. We propose that being in one's chosen job will also have such an effect, as it provides trainees with greater autonomy regarding their career progression (e.g., Gagné & Deci, 2005 ) and aligns their training activity closely with their personal goals (e.g., Locke & Latham, 2002 ). Pre‐ and post‐training surveys were completed by 232 instructors who were themselves on a military training course. Results confirmed the positive effects of being in one's chosen job on the pre‐training attitudes of self‐efficacy and training motivation with further direct effects on motivation to transfer, and indirect effects on knowledge acquisition and post‐training self‐efficacy. Findings have both theoretical and practical ramifications. Being in one's chosen job should be incorporated into models of training motivation and, whenever possible, employees being re‐deployed should be granted their job preference because this is associated with important positive effects on pre‐training attitudes and motivation to transfer new skills to the work environment.     

Ignored no more: Within‐Person variability enables better understanding of training transfer

The empirical findings from training transfer research rest on a rather static view of the transfer phenomenon, ignoring potential within‐person change in transfer over time. This study investigates within‐person variability in mastery goal orientation together with variability over time in the application of newly acquired knowledge and skills to the job context. Data from longitudinal surveys of trainees voluntarily attending statistical workshops revealed that trainees varied significantly in 2 characteristics of transfer trajectory: (a) initial attempts to transfer and (b) subsequent rate of change in transfer. Two affective learning outcomes showed differential relationships with transfer trajectories: Whereas posttraining self‐efficacy predicted initial attempt of transfer, motivation to transfer assessed at the end of training predicted subsequent rate of change in transfer. Furthermore, level and variability of trainees’ mastery orientation interacted to influence posttraining self‐efficacy and motivation to transfer, and subsequently transfer trajectories. Specifically, a trainee's mastery orientation level had stronger prediction of these outcomes when his/her mastery orientation distribution was less variable across situations. These findings highlight the importance of attending to within‐person variability in the study of training transfer by (a) considering training transfer as trajectories over time and (b) understanding trainee traits as frequency distributions.     

Ego-involved persistence: When free-choice behavior is not intrinsically motivated

Experiments on factors affecting intrinsic motivation have generally inferred intrinsic motivation from subjects' engagement in a target activity during a “free-choice period” when external contingencies are no longer operative. However, internally controlling regulation is a form of internal motivation that is very different from intrinsic motivation and can underlie free-choice-period activity. This paper presents three experiments concerned with differentiating internally controlling from intrinsically motivated persistence in situations where ego-involved vs. task-involved subjects had received positive vs. nonconfirming (or no) performance feedback. The first experiment showed that ego-involved (relative to task-involved) subjects displayed less free-choice persistence when they received positive feedback, whereas the second experiment showed that ego-involved (relative to task-involved) subjects displayed more free-choice persistence when they received nonconfirming feedback. In both experiments, however, it was shown that ego-involved subjects did not report the expected affective correlates of intrinsic motivation—namely, interest/enjoyment and perceived choice—whereas task-involved subjects did. In the third experiment, as predicted, ego-involved subjects tended to show less free-choice persistence than task-involved subjects when they received positive performance feedback but greater free-choice persistence when they received no performance feedback. The problem of distinguishing intrinsically motivated activity from internally controlled behavior is discussed.     

Training-related Variables,Gender and Training Outcomes: A Field Investigation

A two-week training programme was provided to male and female trainees. Data were collected on each of the subject's locus of control and on each subject's perception of the degree to which their work environment would be supportive of application of skills acquired in training. The outcome variables measured for the 73 trainees (35 males, 38 females) included motivation to transfer, evaluation of the training programme, the grade achieved at the conclusion of training, self-report and immediate superior's evaluation of the use of acquired skills. Data were also collected on seniority. Hierarchical regression analysis was employed to test the effect of gender, and training-related variables on training outcomes. Controlling for the effect of seniority the data indicated that gender had an impact on motivation to transfer, and gender and seniority both had a significant effect on reaction to the course. Perceived work environment support and its interaction with seniority also accounted for a significant portion of explained variance of motivation to transfer and reactions to the course. Locus of control did not have a significant effect on four of the training outcomes but the interaction of locus of control and seniority affected the superior's evaluation of the use of skills. The results are discussed in terms of their tactical and strategic implications for the relationship between training-related variables and gender.     

Feedback specificity,information processing,and transfer of training

This study examines the effects of feedback specificity on transfer of training and the mechanisms through which feedback can enhance or inhibit transfer. We used concurrent verbal protocol methodology to elicit and operationalize the explicit information processing activities used by 48 trainees performing the Furniture Factory computer simulation. We hypothesized and found support for a moderated mediation model. Increasing feedback specificity influenced the exposure trainees had to different task conditions and negatively affected their levels of explicit information processing. In turn, explicit information processes and levels of exposure to different task conditions interacted to impact transfer of training. Those who received less specific feedback relied more heavily on explicit information processing and had more exposure to the challenging aspects of the task than those who received more specific feedback, which differentially affected what they learned about the task. We discuss how feedback specificity and exposure to different task conditions may prime different learning processes.     

THE ENHANCEMENT OF BEHAVIOR MODELING TRAINING OF SUPERVISORY SKILLS BY THE INCLUSION OF RETENTION PROCESSES

Twenty-four first-line supervisors were randomly assigned to two behavior modeling workshops. The training was designed to improve the supervisors' skills in coaching and handling employee complaints. One workshop included both formalized symbolic coding and symbolic rehearsal processes (experimental group) and one did not (control group). Trainee reaction to the training did not differ between groups; however, generalization of observational learning to a novel context was significantly better in the experimental group. The results of this field study replicated Decker's (1980) laboratory results showing the efficacy of formalized retention processes over any retention processes performed by trainees spontaneously. The implications of this line of research are discussed as well as future research needs.     

MICROCOMPUTER USAGE AS AN OPPORTUNITY: THE INFLUENCE OF CONTEXT IN EMPLOYEE TRAINING

This study presents a test of the influence of social context on training outcomes. Specifically, the effects of labeling microcomputer usage as an opportunity were examined on computer anxiety, computer efficacy beliefs, and learning. Nonacademic university employees enrolled in an introductory microcomputer training class were assigned to a session in which microcomputer usage was randomly established as an opportunity or neutral. Two studies were conducted. Study 1 ( N = 84) identified the issue characteristics of opportunities and threats as a basis to establish context. Study 2 (N = 79) reported the results of the training. Results indicated that, after controlling for pretraining expectations about microcomputer usage, trainees in the opportunity condition exhibited higher computer efficacy and learning, as well as lower computer anxiety, than trainees in the neutral condition. These findings suggest that labeling the context can be a relatively powerful training intervention. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.     

Contextual control of fluid consumption: The effects of context extinction

Rats were trained on a conditional discrimination task in which saccharin was paired with LiCl in one context but paired with saline in another context. Rats drank less saccharin in the danger context than in the safe context, and consumption in the home cage was intermediate to consumption in the two training contexts. Rats also avoided the danger context on a choice test. After discrimination training, rats were given extinction trials with the danger context alone (Experiment 1 and 2) or with the danger context + water (Experiment 2). Extinction trials with the context + water abolished contextual control over saccharin consumption but not the avoidance of the danger context on the choice test. Extinction trials with the context alone abolished avoidance of the danger context but not contextual control over saccharin consumption. These data suggest that occasion setting, not simple context conditioning, is the mechanism by which contextual cues modulate fluid consumption.     

EFFECTS OF SELF-EFFICACY AND POST-TRAINING INTERVENTION ON THE ACQUISITION AND MAINTENANCE OF COMPLEX INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

This study examined the effects of self-efficacy and a two-stage training process on the acquisition and maintenance (i.e., retention) of complex interpersonal skills. In stage one, all participants received basic training in negotiation skills; behavioral measures of negotiation performance were taken following this training. During stage two, alternative post-training interventions (goal setting and self-management) were offered to facilitate skill maintenance. Six weeks later, behavioral measures of performance were repeated. Results indicated that pre-test self-efficacy contributed positively to both initial and delayed performance. While training condition contributed to skill maintenance, self-efficacy also interacted with post-training method to influence delayed performance. Specifically, self-management training attenuated the self-efficacy performance relationship, while goal-setting training accentuated performance differences between high and low self-efficacy trainees. Implications of these findings are discussed for researchers and practitioners concerned with interpersonal skills training.     

Effects of Trainee Characteristics on Training Effectiveness

Six employee characteristics (conscientiousness, self‐efficacy, motivation to learn, learning goal orientation, performance goal orientation, instrumentality) and one work environment characteristic (transfer of training climate) were captured for 130 trainees in a large industrial company in an attempt to predict training effectiveness (training grade, supervisor evaluation of the application of training). The results strongly support the predicted links, although not all the predictor variables contributed a statistically significant share of the explained variance of the training outcomes. Motivation to learn and learning goal orientation were found to contribute most to predicting training outcomes. The implications of the results are discussed and the limitations of the study are noted, along with suggested avenues for future research.     

Is Bad News Always Bad?: Cue and Feedback Effects on Intrinsic Motivation

Although previous research has suggested that, in general, negative feedback concerning performance reduces intrinsically motivated activity, results of the present study indicate that mild negative feedback can increase intrinsic motivation when associated with environmental cues signalling self-determination (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Subjects working on brain-teasers who were given mild negative feedback—but who had a choice of problems to solve, no expectation of evaluation, and who received scores privately—retained as much or more intrinsic motivation than subjects given positive feedback under the same conditions. Subjects in controlling contexts showed less intrinsic motivation. The measure of intrinsic motivation used in this study was a sum of standardized mood and target activity, following recent criticisms of the use of strictly behavioral measures to operationalize intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 1986).     

Supervising Consultants in Training: An Application of a Model of Supervision

In this article the author delineates a model of supervision for consultation training. The model is based on Stoltenberg and Delworth's (1987) Integrated Developmental Model of supervision of counselors and has been adapted for supervision of consultation trainees. The model describes trainee characteristics and supervision needs across three levels of development, culminating in an integrated (3i) level with developed skills across eight domains of consultation activity. Development is tracked by monitoring changes in three crucial structures: self- and other-awareness, motivation, and autonomy. Suggestions for supervision approaches for all three levels are presented, and relevant research is discussed.     

Trainee Perceptions of Drill Sergeant Qualities During Basic Combat Training

Basic combat training plays an important role in military service with approximately 72,000 soldiers participating in the United States annually. Although Drill Sergeant qualities have been widely portrayed in popular media, there is very little empirical research that documents the characteristics of Drill Sergeants and the impact these characteristics may have on trainees. In this study we evaluated a measure of perceived Drill Sergeant qualities and the degree to which these qualities related to mental health symptoms and job-related outcomes of trainees. Three types of perceived Drill Sergeant qualities were found from factor analyses: motivation, respect, and toughness. Using latent growth curve analyses, higher initial scores on motivation and respect, but not toughness, were associated with greater decreases in mental health symptoms over time. Further, changes in perceived Drill Sergeant qualities related to changes in depressive symptoms, unit cohesion, and citizen behaviors assessed over the course of basic combat training.