Reliability and validity of the Parent-Child Relationship Inventory (PCRI): evidence from a longitudinal cross-informant investigation

Psychometric properties of the Parent-Child Relationship Inventory (PCRI) were examined using data collected from adolescents and their parents in the Fullerton Longitudinal Study. Results revealed acceptable internal consistency for most scales and moderate to high 1-year stability for all scales. Both parents' PCRI scores correlated with their views of family climate. Cross-informant concordance was pervasive and strong between mothers' PCRI scores and adolescents' perceptions of the parent-child relationship and family climate; however, convergence was not evident between fathers' and adolescents' reports. Additionally, poor performance was observed for the Autonomy scale. In conjunction with other research on parent-adolescent relationships, concerns are raised regarding the utility of scales to contrast mother-adolescent with father-adolescent relationships.     

Relationship Quality among Chronically Ill Children and their Parents

The present study examined the quality of parent–child relationships as reported by 383 parents of chronically ill children. The medical condition category, child’s mobility, education type and childcare assistance were examined. Parents answered the Parent–Child Relationship Inventory (PCRI). In addition, 45 parents of chronically ill children were interviewed. The results indicated a significant difference in most aspects of the PCRI (limit setting, promotion of autonomy, communication, satisfaction and involvement) across medical condition categories. Further child variables (mobility, assistance and education type) had an effect on the PCRI subscales as well. Interview analysis revealed a difference in the reported quality of parent–child relationships between medical conditions categories. Parents of mentally ill children primarily felt anger and guilt in their relationship with their ill children, whereas parents of children with cancer and autoimmune disease primarily felt depressed. Our results suggest the need for further study of parent–child relationships in and between different chronic childhood medical conditions in an attempt to address parents’ and children’s needs in an optimal way.     

Validity of the parenting scale for parents of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

The present study examined the validity of the parenting scale for parents of elementary school-aged children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Parents from 109 families with children who had been diagnosed with ADHD (106 mothers and 93 fathers) and from 70 families with non-problem children (69 mothers and 59 fathers) completed the parenting scale and reported on their children's behavior problems. Factor analyses revealed two interpretable factors for both mothers and fathers, corresponding to the overreactivity and laxness factors identified in previous studies of the parenting scale. Overreactivity and laxness scores were significantly higher for mothers and fathers of ADHD children than of non-ADHD children; this effect appeared to be accounted for by comorbid aggression and conduct problems among ADHD children. Results support the validity of the parenting scale for use with parents of ADHD children.     

A multitrait-multisource confirmatory factor analytic approach to the construct validity of ADHD rating scales

Confirmatory factor analysis was used to model a multitrait-multisource design to evaluate the construct validity of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) rating scales. The 2 trait factors were the ADHD inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity dimensions. The 2 source factors were parents and teachers. In Study 1, parents and teachers rated 1,475 Australian elementary school children on the ADHD symptoms. In Study 2, parents and teachers rated 285 Brazilian elementary school children on the ADHD symptoms. Similar results occurred in both studies with most of the ADHD symptoms containing more source than trait variance, thus providing weak evidence for the convergent and discriminant validity of the symptoms as measured by rating scales. The study outlines the implications of such strong source effects for understanding ADHD.     

Familial Aggregation of ADHD Characteristics

Patterns of familial aggregation of ADHD symptoms in parents of ADHD and non-ADHD children were examined. Within the ADHD sample, symptom aggregation was examined as a function of biological relationship, parent and child gender, and children's comorbid diagnoses. Participants consisted of parents of 579 children with ADHD, Combined Type participating in the multimodal treatment study of children with ADHD and parents of 288 normal control participants. Adult symptoms of ADHD were measured by both self-report and report of a significant other. Results indicated that the parents of children with ADHD had higher ratings of inattention/cognitive problems, hyperactivity/restlessness, impulsivity/emotional lability, and lower self-concept than parents of children without ADHD on both self-report and other-report ratings. Within the ADHD sample of children, other-report ratings of inattention/cognitive problems and impulsivity/emotional lability were higher for biological parents compared to nonbiological parents whereas self-ratings were not related to biological status. These findings support previous research documenting familial aggregation of ADHD and appear to strengthen the hypothesis that there is a genetic contribution to ADHD.     

The impact of premature childbirth on parental bonding

The development of an affectionate parent-infant bond is essential for a newborn infant's survival and development. However, from evolutionary theory it can be derived that parental bonding is not an automatic process, but dependent on infants' cues to reproductive potential and parents' access to resources. The purpose of the present study was to examine the process of bonding in a sample of Dutch mothers (n = 200) and fathers (n = 193) of full-term (n = 69), moderately premature (n = 68), and very premature infants (n = 63). During the first month postpartum parents completed the Pictorial Representation of Attachment Measure (PRAM) and Postpartum Bonding Questionnaire (PBQ). Longitudinal analyses revealed that mothers' PRAM scores decreased after moderately preterm delivery, whereas decreases in PRAM scores occurred in both parents after very preterm delivery. As lower PRAM scores represent stronger feelings of parent-infant connectedness, our findings suggest a higher degree of bonding after premature childbirth. Results of the PBQ analysis were in line with PRAM outcomes, as parents of preterm infants reported less bonding problems compared to parents of full-terms. These findings support the hypothesis that in affluent countries with adequate resources, bonding in parents of preterm infants on average may be higher than in parents of full-term infants.     

The Unity and Diversity of Inattention and Hyperactivity/Impulsivity in ADHD: Evidence for a General Factor with Separable Dimensions

To examine the unity and diversity of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity symptom domains of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in a clinical sample of adolescents with ADHD. Parents and adolescents were administered a semi-structured diagnostic interview, the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children — Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL), to assess adolescent ADHD. Data from 201 parent interviews and 189 adolescent interviews were examined. Four potential factor structures for the 18 ADHD symptoms were tested using confirmatory factor analysis: two models with correlated factors and two bifactor models. A bifactor model with two specific factors best accounted for adolescent symptoms, according to both parent and adolescents’ reports. Replication of these findings from behavioral rating scales completed for this sample by parents and teachers indicates that the findings are not method– or informant-specific. The results suggest that there is an important unitary component to ADHD symptoms and separable dimensional traits of Inattention and Hyperactivity/Impulsivity.     

Assessing Stress in Families of Children with ADHD: Preliminary Development of the Disruptive Behavior Stress Inventory (DBSI)

This paper describes the initial development of the Disruptive Behavior Stress Inventory (DBSI). This 40-item measure, which provides indices of the number of stressors experienced during the past 6 months and the rated stressfulness of these events, is designed to assess behavior-related family stress experienced by families of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Findings provide strong support for the internal consistency of the DBSI and suggest adequate test-retest reliability. Support for the validity of the measure is suggested by findings that DBSI stress indices differentiate between parents of children with ADHD and those with no history of this disorder. Additional support is provided by findings that scores on the DBSI also differentiate between parents of children with ADHD, combined type and parents of children with ADHD, inattentive type. It is suggested that this measure may provide useful clinical information regarding stress levels in families of children with ADHD and that it may be of potential value as an ADHD treatment outcome measure.     

Parent and teacher SNAP-IV ratings of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms: psychometric properties and normative ratings from a school district sample

To examine Swanson, Nolan, and Pelham-IV (SNAP-IV) psychometric properties, parent (N = 1,613) and teacher (N = 1,205) data were collected from a random elementary school student sample in a longitudinal attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) detection study. SNAP-IV reliability was acceptable. Factor structure indicated two ADHD factors and an oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) factor. Parent and teacher scores varied by gender and poverty status (d = .49-.56) but not age; only teacher scores varied by race (d = .25-.55). Screening and diagnostic utility was evaluated with likelihood ratios (LRs) and posttest probabilities. Parent SNAP-IV scores above 1.2 increased probability of concern (LR > 10) and above 1.8, of ADHD diagnosis (LR > 3). Teacher hyperactivity/impulsivity scores above 1.2 and inattention scores above 1.8 increased probabilities of concern only (LR = 4.2 and >5, respectively). Higher teacher scores for African American children and race differences in measurement models require future study.     

Predicting parenting stress: children's behavioural problems and parents' coping

This study examined the effects of child characteristics and parent coping practices on parenting stress, based on a sample of parents of 64 boys with behavioural problems and a comparison group with parents of 128 boys. All parents completed questionnaires about stress, length of education, child characteristics, social support, sense of coherence and coping practices, in addition to interviews in their home about daily activities and relations with the child. A hierarchical regression model for predicting parenting stress was tested, and the results showed that having a child with behavioural problems predicted 57% of the variance in parenting stress. Social support and parental resources and strategies added to the prediction of parenting stress after controlling for family demographics and child characteristics. The parents in the clinical group (with boys referred to psychiatric units) were more often single parents with lower education, more often unemployed, less content with social support, and had lower scores on comprehensibility. These parents were significantly more stressed than parents in the comparison group. All these risk factors might be barriers against establishing a protective frame around a child. These parents, with a difficult child‐rearing situation, who perceived less support and had fewer material benefits, seemed to be more vulnerable. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Familial Association and Frequency of Learning Disabilities in ADHD Sibling Pair Families

In a sample of 235 families with at least two children with Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), the frequency and familial association of learning disabilities (LD) were assessed. Familiality was examined both between sibling pairs and between parents and their children. Two methods for defining LD, a discrepancy-based and a low-achievement model, were employed to examine the occurrence of LD in this sample. The specific types of LD examined included Reading Disability (RD), Math Disability (MD), and Writing Disability (WD). The prevalence rates were highest for RD, followed by WD then MD. The two definitions of LD yielded similar prevalence rates but identified different groups of children with vastly different IQ scores. Strong familial association was demonstrated for RD both between sibling pairs and between parents and children, with weaker association for WD. There was evidence of nonrandom mating for LD among parents, but not for ADHD or for ADHD + LD. Despite the high comorbidity of ADHD and LD among parents, the presence of ADHD in the parents did not predict child LD supporting independent familial factors underlying ADHD and LD.     

A model for predicting behavioural sleep problems in a random sample of Australian pre‐schoolers

Behavioural sleep problems (childhood insomnias) can cause distress for both parents and children. This paper reports a model describing predictors of high sleep problem scores in a representative population‐based random sample survey of non‐Aboriginal singleton children born in 1995 and 1996 (1085 girls and 1129 boys) in Western Australia. Longitudinal repeated data were collected up to age 4 years by caregiver report. Children's sleep rhythmicity levels in their first year, as well as conflicted and lax parenting in their second year, predicted higher scores on the sleep problem scale from the Child Behaviour Checklist/2–3 in the children's third year. Higher scores on the sleep problem scale in the children's third year predicted higher scores on the aggressive behaviour subscale of the Child Behaviour Checklist/4–16. The results support a model in which sleep problems mediated the relationship between parental conflict and aggressive behaviour, even when controlling for maternal depression, which has been associated with children's aggressive behaviour. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Factor Structure and Criterion Validity of Secondary School Teacher Ratings of ADHD and ODD

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is currently viewed as a heterogeneous disorder with two factors: inattention and impulsivity–hyperactivity. This conceptualization of ADHD is based primarily on research with children or samples that mix children and adolescents. To examine if the 2-factor ADHD model is appropriate for adolescents and if the ADHD factors are distinct from Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) in adolescents, teacher rating data were collected for 2 samples of adolescents. The results of a confirmatory factor analysis supported the convergent and divergent validity of a model with separate but correlated factors for inattention, impulsivity–hyperactivity, and defiant behavior. Further evidence of construct validity was found when factor scores were examined relative to the criterion variables of academic performance and rule-breaking behavior. The results support the utility of teacher ratings of ADHD and ODD in the assessment of adolescents, and the applicability of the DSM-IV conceptualization of these disorders to adolescents.     

Correlates of adolescent parenting

A self-selected sample of 177 teenage parents participated in a study of the correlates of teenage parenting. An ecological model of the predictors of parenting behavior was used to define factors which potentially influence teenage parents' parenting skills as measured by the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME). The factors tested include level of punitiveness toward child rearing, knowledge of developmental milestones, level of depression, perceived social support, parental age, and parental race. The results of a stepwise hierarchical regression analysis found that parental race, punitive attitudes toward child rearing, and parental age were statistically significant predictors of total HOME scores. The older, white adolescent mother with less punitive attitudes toward child rearing and child discipline scored the highest on parenting skills. The relevance of these findings to program planners and service providers involved in teenage parent support and education programs is discussed.     

The Depressive Experiences Questionnaire: on using a student-based scoring program for a clinical sample

In both clinical and nonclinical samples, the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire is scored with a program that computes factor scores by using means, standard deviations, and item-loadings of a student sample. The underlying assumption of the use of this program in clinical samples is that factor scores computed on the basis of the student factor solution are similar to factor scores computed on the basis of a clinical factor solution. Consequently, both series of scores should lead up to the same conclusions when studying associations with theoretically related variables. This assumption has not been tested although the questionnaire has been used in research for almost 30 years. In the present paper an alternative scoring program was constructed, based on the factor solution of a clinical sample (N = 400) to assess whether scores of this clinical scoring program are associated in the same way with different types of depressive symptoms and interpersonal problems as the scores of the original (student-based) program. Analysis gave results inconsistent with the assumption and did not support the use of the student-based scoring program in the clinical sample. Further, results suggest that standards for assessing factorial similarity used in confirmatory factor analysis might be too lenient.     

Dimensional structure and measurement invariance of the BRIEF-2 across gender in a socially vulnerable sample of primary school-aged children

The present study aims to analyze, on the one hand, the dimensional structure of the BRIEF-2 and, on the other, its measurement invariance across gender in a sample of primary school-aged children. Participants were 168 students (51.8% girls) in conditions of social risk and in foster homes, with ages ranging from 6 to 15 years old (M = 10.08; SD = 2.09). The children’s executive functioning level was obtained from their parents or caregivers. The analysis of the internal structure using confirmatory factor analysis reveals that the model with three indexes (Behavioral, Emotional and Cognitive) and nine scales (Inhibit, Shift, Self-Monitor, Emotional Control, Initiate, Working Memory, Plan/Organize, Organization of Materials and Task-Monitor) showed a good fit to the sample. Likewise, the results support the measurement invariance of the BRIEF-2 across genders. The coefficient alpha values for the index scores ranged from .71 to .91, with coefficients for the individual scales ranging from .66 to .88. The findings support the factorial validity of the BRIEF-2 scores, suggesting that it is an adequate instrument to evaluate executive functioning reported by parents and caregivers. Future studies must continue to examine the structure and invariance of the BRIEF-2 in different populations and cultures.     

Early parent-child relations and family functioning of preschool boys with pervasive hyperactivity

This study examined the quality of parent–child relationships and family functioning of preschool children with early onset hyperactivity by comparing a community sample of 33 pervasively hyperactive preschool boys with a comparison sample of 34 boys. Mothers and children were assessed at home on a range of interview, parent questionnaire, and observational measures of parenting and family functioning. Results of the study showed that higher rates of reported lax disciplinary practices, less efficient parental coping, lower rates of father–child communication, and less synchronous mother–child interactions were significantly associated with hyperactivity following statistical adjustment for the effects of conduct problems and other confounding factors. The best parenting predictor of hyperactivity was maternal coping. The present findings suggest that the way in which parents interact with their preschool children may make a unique contribution to the development and ongoing behavioral difficulties experienced by children with pervasive hyperactivity. Findings also highlight the importance of considering the role of fathers in the behavioral development of boys with early tendencies to hyperactive and distractible behavior problems.     

A cross-sectional comparison of routinized and compulsive-like behaviours in typical children aged from 2 to 11 years

Routinized and compulsive like behaviours (RCBs) have been described as important aspects of development seen universally in children, yet investigation is relatively scarce. One exception was the development of the Childhood Routines Inventory (CRI), which has prompted recent studies. The present study was a replication of the standardization for the CRI on a British sample and with an extended age range. It also explored possible associations with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). The parents of 1,369 children (aged 2–11 years) completed the CRI, and an 8-item OCD scale for those 7 years and over. Socioeconomic status (SES) was measured by proxy post codes; 111 parents completed the questionnaire twice. The CRI had good internal consistency and test–retest reliability. There was a significant linear decline in RCBs with age; a minority of children continued to have high levels up to 11 years of age. Children designated at risk for OCD had higher CRI scores. Anxious behaviours reported by parents of children aged 7 years or over were associated with higher levels of RCBs. Factor analysis of the CRI identified three factors: “Repetitive”, “Just Right” and “Sensitivity”.     

Impact of a Kentucky Maternal, Infant, and Early Childhood Home-Visitation Program on Parental Risk Factors

As public health organizations continue to implement maternal and child health home-visitation programs, more evaluation of these efforts is needed, particularly as it relates to improving parental behaviors. The purpose of our study was to assess the impact of families’ participation in a home-visitation program offered by a central Kentucky health department on parental risk factors. A family social worker or nurse interviewed parents pre-intervention, completing a Parent Survey which assessed multiple parental risk factors associated with negative health and well-being and to calculate a total risk score. Upon exiting the program, parents are re-interviewed to document improvements, review progress and accomplished goals, plan for transitional services, and calculate a new risk score. As of December 2010, 64 families had completed the home-visitation program and had pre- and post-risk scores available for analysis. Based on paired-sample t tests, there was a statistically significant difference in total mean risk scores among both mothers and fathers from pre to post. The McNemar–Bowker test also revealed statistically different scores for four of the six risk factors for mothers and fathers pre- and post-home-visitation: lifestyle behaviors and mental health, coping skills and support systems, stresses, and anger management skills. Findings suggest that families who were deemed at-risk for adverse pregnancy and child health outcomes benefit from participation in the home-visitation program. Programs designed to promote positive pregnancy outcomes and child development may benefit from providing social support, fostering parental knowledge, skill development and problem solving, insuring proper medical care, and connecting parents with community resources.     

Ecological Predictors of Disciplinary Style and Child Abuse Potential in a Hispanic and Anglo-American Sample

Recent attention to multicultural issues has sparked recognition that parenting is also a culturally construed phenomenon. The present study involved a diverse sample of 90 Anglo-American and Hispanic parents examining predictors based on distal/proximal levels as conceptualized in the ecological model. The study examined background characteristics (e.g., minority status, educational level, income), intrapersonal (anger, parenting competence, parenting satisfaction), and extrapersonal (social support) factors in the prediction of child abuse potential and dysfunctional disciplinary style. Parents participated anonymously in an in-home assessment. Neither minority status nor income predicted abuse potential or parenting style beyond what was accounted for by educational level. The pattern of findings for the sample suggests the relative importance of anger expression, parenting self-efficacy, and social support satisfaction in both abuse potential and disciplinary style for both Hispanic and Anglo-American parents. Future research directions with diverse samples are considered, including the need for measures specifically designed to assess parenting issues in diverse cultural groups.