The relation between sample and population characteristic vectors

Data are reported which show the statistical relation between the sample and population characteristic vectors of correlation matrices with squared multiple correlations as communality estimates. Sampling fluctuations were found to relate only to differences in the square roots of characteristic roots and to sample size. A principle for determining the number of factors to rotate and interpret after rotation is suggested.This study was supported by the National Science Foundation, Grant GB 4230. The author wishes to express his appreciation for the use of Western Data Processing Center and the Health Sciences Computing Facility, UCLA. He also thanks Dr. Roger Pennell for extremely valuable assistance in a number of phases of the study.     

Death of the Soviet regime: A study in American sovietology by a historian

Rapidly changing estimates on the Soviet régime's ability to survive show how difficult it is for American Sovietologists to grasp what is going on.The paper orginated from a series of informal debates and lunchtable conversations held at the Russian Research Center of Harvard University, over the future of the Soviet regime, around the time of its 50th anniversay. The essay was originally presented as a Russian Research Center Seminar paper on March 20, 1970. The author wishes to express his thanks to Professor Richard Pipes, Director of the Center, for permission to reproduce most of the content of the paper.     

Models of health and wholeness

A church-clinic model of the neighborhood health center, developed initially in a low-income area, has now been established over the past three years in middle- and upper-income areas. The church-clinics, called Wholistic Health Centers, are primary care medical clinics located in church buildings that utilize an interdisciplinary team in the planning for patient treatment and health education. The project integrates primary medical care with pastoral counseling services. Evaluation of the two clinics in middle-to-upper-income areas indicates that the patients are middle to upper class, well educated, and are not medically disenfranchised; their presenting problems are only slightly more often medical (58%) than psychosocial (42%).This work was conducted in part when Dr. Holinger was at the Institute for Psychosomatic and Psychiatric Research and Training, Michael Reese Hospital and Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois.He is also the author ofWholistic Health.The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of the Rev. Granger E. Westberg, D.D., Clinical Professor, and Edward A. Lichter, Professor and Chairman, Department of Preventive Medicine and Community Health, University of Illinois at the Medical Center, Abraham Lincoln School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, in the preparation of this report.     

Note on the selection of a panel of judges so as to maximize panel efficiency

Attempts to develop improved methods of selecting a panel of judges for psychometric work are presented. The applications reported are in the sensory field and are limited to the assumption of a unidimensional ability underlying the judgments in question. Some aspects of cost efficiency are also considered.The writers wish to acknowledge the value of a discussion with Dr. Harold Gulliksen of Princeton University and the Educational Testing Service, Princeton; Dr. Frederic Lord, also of the Educational Testing Service, contributed some valuable criticisms. The writers' thanks are also due Mr. George Bosy, at the Research Laboratories, Kraft Foods Company, where the senior author is currently employed.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Doctor Anonymous</Emphasis>: Creating Contexts for Homosexuality as Mental Illness

In this essay, the author describes how he faced institutionalized homophobia during his psychiatric training, and how he later wrote a play inspired by the life of a gay psychiatrist. Despite Freud’s supportive stance, homosexuality aroused the antipathy of American organized psychiatry and psychoanalysis and came to be listed as an illness in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM). Dr. John E. Fryer outed himself as “Dr. H Anonymous” at a 1972 meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, and the next year homosexuality was removed from the DSM. The 2014 play Doctor Anonymous offers a fictionalized account of this watershed moment in the history of the gay rights movement. The author discusses his own psychotherapeutic work with gay male patients, including those who had previously been treated with conversion therapy, and explores how the play mirrors his own life experience and the experience of his patients.     

Cognitive support for the career choices of college women

The career aspirations of 50 female college seniors of lower- and middle-class backgrounds was assessed by a questionnaire and tape-recorded interview. Using a fourfold classification contrasting career choice with career commitment, the women were classified as innovative career oriented, innovative noncareer oriented, traditional career oriented, and traditional noncareer oriented. The career aspirations of these women, however, were not related to maternal employment patterns as previous studies have indicated. Rather, the perceived attitudes and direction of the parents was found to be a significant correlate of career choice and career commitment. It was concluded that maternal employment as a modeling variable may be unimportant for women of lower- and middle-class backgrounds.This article is based on a dissertation which was submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Ph.D. degree in the Graduate Center, City University of New York. The author expresses appreciation to Dr. Florence Denmark for her continuous support throughout the entire study and also thanks Dr. Bernard Seidenberg for his valuable suggestions on earlier drafts of this article.     

Sex differences in the clinical expression of depression

Recent epidemiological studies have established that the lifetime prevalence rate of depression is greater in women than in men. It was the purpose of the present study to investigate the possibility that the true prevalence of male depression is underestimated because males have learned through social rejection that it is inappropriate for them to openly express depressive feelings. Consistent with this notion that men only express depressive symptoms consonant with their traditional male sex role, a discriminant function analysis performed on the self-reported symptomatology of depressed patients revealed that men were more likely to report sex role appropriate symptoms such as work-related problems and somatic concerns. Since other self-presentational concerns may contribute to the sex difference in depression, it is suggested that future research directly examine the ways in which men experience and express symptoms of depression.An earlier draft of this article was presented at the 55th Annual Meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association, Baltimore, Maryland, April 1984. This research was supported in part by a grant from the Medical Research Council of Canada, awarded to the first author, and Grant No. 6606-1768-46 from the Health Services and Promotions Branch of Health and Welfare Canada, awarded to the second author. The authors would like to thank Dr. Paul Grof, Kaely Hutchinson, and the staff and patients of Hamilton Psychiatric Hospital for their help and cooperation with the project.     

Implications of age of onset for delinquency risk

A substantial body of research suggests that age of onset is a viable discriminator of risk for chronic versus transient delinquency. Also, a mullivariate model of psychosocial variables (demographics, individual, school, and family functioning) appears likely to provide a comparatively accurate and useful discriminatory model for prediction. These two findings were applied to a normal sample of male adolescents (N=199, ages 15–18) to study the relationship of age of onset to delinquent behavior (as opposed to use of legal status to denote delinquency) and legal status. Additionally, the efficiency and improvement over chance accuracy of a multivariate model developed as part of a larger research project was tested. Results indicated that age of onset is an important and accurate discriminator of extent of subsequent delinquency. Subjects with an early age of onset reported more delinquent behavior, were more likely to be adjudicated, and showed different patterns of delinquency. A combination of demographic, individual, school, and family variables predicted age of onset.This work was conducted while the author was a Clinical Research Training Fellow in Adolescence (funded by T32 MH 14668) at the Institute for Psychosomatic and Psychiatric Research and Training, Michael Reese Hospital and Medical Center, in a program also sponsored by the Departments of Behavioral Science and Psychiatry, University of Chicago, and the Adolescent Program of the Illinois State Psychiatric Institute. The author is indebted to Ronald Rosenthal, Daniel Offer, and two anonymous reviewers for their advice and comments on an earlier draft of this article.     

Determining the degree of inconsistency in a set of paired comparisons

Consistency in paired comparison data is defined. Two types of inconsistency which may arise are defined. Computational formulas for these types of inconsistency are derived, and examples illustrating the use of these formulas are presented.These ideas were developed while the first author was on the staff of the Research Center for Human Relations. The work was made possible by the ONR contract NONR 285(10). The authors are indebted to Jack Moshman for his helpful critical suggestions. The United States Government is authorized to reprint this article in whole or in part.     

The relationship between degree of original learning and degree of transfer

Summary An experiment was performed to determine the relationship between the accuracy of the original learning and the accuracy of transposition. The usual method of comparison of the average number of errors in the transposition test made by a group of rats trained to a criterion of 10 consecutive errorless trials with the average number of errors made by a group of rats trained to a criterion of 30 consecutive errorless trials reveals no clear difference between the groups.However, the degree of learning at the point when training ceased, plotted against errors made in transposition, brings out a clear relationship between degree of original learning and accuracy of transposition. Within the range of learning tested, the more accurate the original learning was, the more accurate was the transposition.My special thanks and appreciation are extended to Dr. Martin L. Reymert, the Director of the Mooseheart Laboratory for Child Research, for his encouragement in this work, and for furnishing the facilities for the experimental work.     

NATURALIZING PSYCHEDELIC SPIRITUALITY

A pressing philosophical problem is how to respond to the existential, anxiety and disenchantment resulting from a naturalistic worldview that eschews transcendent foundations for meaning and value. This problem is becoming more urgent as the popularization of neuroscientific findings renders a disenchanted conception of human beings ever more vivid, compelling, and widespread. I argue that the study of transformative experiences occasioned by classic psychedelic drugs such as lysergic acid diethylamide and psilocybin may reveal the nature of a viable practical solution to this problem. Despite the apparent centrality of nonnaturalistic metaphysical apprehensions to psychedelic transformation, findings from psychedelic research suggest that key elements of psychedelic or “entheogenic” spirituality are consistent with naturalism. These include disruption to neurocognitive mechanisms underpinning the sense of self, and consequent experiences of self‐transcendence and of the decoupling of attention from personal concerns. This liberation of attention can result in the availability of broader perspectives and the development of wonder and appreciation for life.     

Factor analysis of the army air forces sheppard field battery of experimental aptitude tests

A factor analysis was made of 39 experimental printed aptitude tests and seven reference tests selected from the Army Air Forces Aircrew Classification Battery. Thirteen factors were extracted and two independent orthogonal rotational solutions were completed. Twelve factors were interpreted. Of these, seven were clearly identifiable with previously known factors: numerical, perceptual-speed, spatial-relations, visualization, visual-memory, paired-associates-memory, and length-estimation factors. A planning factor was not as clearly identifiable. A reasoning factor was probably a composite of two or more factors that failed to separate. A new factor possibly has to do with orientation with respect to the points of the compass. Two factors were doublets, each apparently specific to one kind of test. Better conceptions were gained of the spatial-relations and visualization factors and of the kinds of tests that measure them best. Efforts to improve measures of unique factors were not uniformly successful. The attempt to duplicate a psychomotor test rather directly by analogy in printed form failed almost completely.For support of a large part of the investigation the senior author is indebted to the Social Sciences Research Council for a grant-in-aid. Dr. Fruchter supervised the computational work in the extraction of factors and in one of the rotational solutions. Much of the work was done while he was employed by the Air Training Command Human Resources Research Center. While the opinions and conclusions are those of the authors, they wish to express their appreciation to that organization and especially to Dr. John T. Dailey for making the facilities possible and to Mr. William B. Lecznar for technical and computational assistance.     

Referees, editors, and publication practices: Improving the reliability and usefulness of the peer review system

The documented low levels of reliability of the peer review process present a serious challenge to editors who must often base their publication decisions on conflicting referee recommendations. The purpose of this article is to discuss this process and examine ways to produce a more reliable and useful peer review system. The author is a Senior Research Scientist & Biostatistician, Child Study Center and Department of Psychiatry in the Yale University School of Medicine. Note: The main points of this report were presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) in Baltimore, Maryland, on February 9, 1996.     

Approximate interval estimation for a certain intraclass correlation coefficient

When the raters participating in a reliability study are a random sample from a larger population of raters, inferences about the intraclass correlation coefficient must be based on the three mean squares from the analysis of variance table summarizing the results: between subjects, between raters, and error. An approximate confidence interval for the parameter is presented as a function of these three mean squares.Dr. Fleiss is also with the Biometrics Research Unit of the New York State Psychiatric Institute. This work was supported in part by grant DE 04068 from the National Institute of Dental Research.     

Reflections on a do-it-yourself training program in clinical psychology

This paper is a somewhat modified version of the inaugural Rapaport—Klein Memorial Lecture at Austen Riggs Center presented June 21, 1974. The author describes the experiences, the series of “apprenticeships” and clinical exposures, which coalesced into his education, from teenage days in the New York Madison House settlement, through Harvard undergraduate and graduate work, to Worcester State Hospital as head of psychological services and research. In conclusion, the author discusses the effects of the kinds of training experiences he has described on the issues that arose in the formulation of formal standards of training in clinical psychology.     

Taxicab Correspondence Analysis

Taxicab correspondence analysis is based on the taxicab singular value decomposition of a contingency table, and it shares some similar properties with correspondence analysis. It is more robust than the ordinary correspondence analysis, because it gives uniform weights to all the points. The visual map constructed by taxicab correspondence analysis has a larger sweep and clearer perspective than the map obtained by correspondence analysis. Two examples are provided. This research was financed by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. The author thanks Serge Vienneau for his help regarding the graphical displays, and also thanks the editor, associate editor, and two reviewers for their constructive comments.     

Axioms of a theory of discrimination learning

Analysis of an empirical theory into a formal system with specified primitive notions and axioms has the advantage of making it clear what deductions from the theory are permissible, and clarifying the internal structure of the theory. An example of such analysis is presented in this paper.This paper is adapted from part of a Ph.D. dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology, Stanford University, in November 1953. The author wishes to express his appreciation to Dr. Patrick Suppes, who guided the analysis reported in this paper. The author is now with the Human Resources Research Office, The George Washington University.     

On the independence of positive and negative affect within hour-to-hour experience

This research investigates the hypothesis that the rates of positive and negative affect in a person's life are independent. Whereas prior research on this issue has relied upon people's recollections, a source of information subject to distortion, this research employs reports obtained from immediate experience. Members of an adolescent and an adult sample carried electronic pagers for 1 week and filled out reports on their immediate affective states upon receipt of signals sent to them at random times. The frequencies of positive and negative affective states for each person were then computed from this pool of time samples. The findings reveal strong internal consistency in each person's rates of positive and negative affect. However, congruent with the independence hypothesis, these frequency rates of positive and negative affect were not correlated with each other. The findings dispel the possibility that the results of prior research were affected by distortions of recollection, and they suggest that the occurrence of positive and negative affect in a person's life are independent, not only from week to week, but also from day to day and hour to hour.This research was carried out with support from the Psychiatric Research Fund of Michael Reese Hospital and Medical Center. The author wishes to express his appreciation to Norman Bradburn, Mark Freeman, Nancy Bradney, Randy Larsen, and Ed Diener for comments on an earlier draft of this paper. The author is indebted to Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and Ronald Graef for use of the data from the adult sample.     

Men's fear of sex with women: A cross-cultural study

Anthropologists have described cultural beliefs in many societies that suggest men fear sex with women. In this paper I derive and cross-culturally test the implications of four theories that may help explain such fear. These theories suggest that men may fear sex with women because their wives come from enemy villages; population pressure on resources favors the avoidance of intercourse; males are conflicted about their sexual identity; or males have an exaggerated Oedipus complex. The cross-cultural evidence is generally consistent with all four theories. A tentative causal model is presented to account for the results.This article is a revised and enlarged version of a paper presented at the fifth annual meeting of the Society for Cross-Cultural Research, February 13–15, 1976, in New York City. The author wishes to thank Judith Berman and Melvin Ember for their help. She also thanks the Graduate School and University Center of the City University of New York for providing the funds to support this research.